MOST PROBABLE TOPICS – PART 6

1.Particularly Vulnerable Tribe Groups of Andaman & Nicobar

There are 6 aboriginal tribes in Andaman & Nicobar Islands belonging to two broad groups of Negrito and Mongoloid. Except Nicobarese (Mongoloid), the rest 5 are recognized as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) i.e. Sentinelese (Negrito), Great Andamanese (Negrito), Ongs (Negrito), Jarawas (Negrito) and Shom Pens (Mongoloid).

• Sentinelese: They the only remaining tribe in the Andamans to still maintain their isolation from the rest of the world and live like hunter gatherers.They are connected to the Jarawa on the basis of physical, as well as linguistic similarities. o Both Sentinelese men and women do not wear cloths.
• Great Andamanese: The great Andamanese is a collective term used for 10 different tribes that lived in most of the large islands in the Andaman. They are also known for their brave History where they fought with bows and arrows with the English men who tried to occupy their land (The Battle of Aberdeen).Today most tribes are extinct and their cultural and linguistic identities largely been lost. (e.g. their members now speak mostly Hindi).
• Jarawa: Jarawas continue to be hunting and gathering nomadic tribe and are often hostile to outsiders. o Men fish with bows and arrows in the coastal waters while women catch fish with basket.
• Onge: They are hunting and gathering tribe settled at Dugong Creek and South Bay on Little Andaman Island.
• Shompen: The Shompens are primarily hunter-gatherers and also practise a little bit of horticulture and pig rearing.
• Nicobarese: They are largest of tribes and are primarily horticulturalists

Shompens were in news  recently related to fear of contracting Corona.

2. Sun Spots

The amount of magnetic flux that rises up to the Sun’s surface varies with time in a cycle called the solar cycle. This cycle which lasts 11 years on average is referred to as the sunspot cycle.

• Sun spots are
• Darker
• magnetically strong,
• cooler areas on the surface of the sun in a region called the photosphere.
• It will help in understanding of the long-term variations of the Sun and its impact on earth climate which is one of the objectives of India’s first solar probe – ‘Aditya L-1 Mission’.

3. IAEA

• The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is an international organization that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy, and to inhibit its use for any military purpose, including nuclear weapons. The IAEA was established as an autonomous organisation on 29 July 1957.
• Though established independently of the United Nations through its own international treaty, the IAEA Statute, the IAEA reports to both the United Nations General Assembly and Security Council.
• Widely known as the world’s “Atoms for Peace and Development” organization within the United Nations family, the IAEA is the international centre for cooperation in the nuclear field.
• Headquarters –  Vienna, Austria
• The IAEA serves as an intergovernmental forum for scientific and technical co-operation in the peaceful use of nuclear technology and nuclear power worldwide. The programs of the IAEA encourage the development of the peaceful applications of nuclear energy, science and technology, provide international safeguards against misuse of nuclear technology and nuclear materials, and promote nuclear safety (including radiation protection) and nuclear security standards and their implementation.

The IAEA is generally described as having three main missions:

1.Peaceful uses: Promoting the peaceful uses of nuclear energy by its member states,

2.Safeguards: Implementing safeguards to verify that nuclear energy is not used for military purposes, and

3.Nuclear safety: Promoting high standards for nuclear safety.

4. Shale gas

• Unlike conventional gas, which resides in highly porous and permeable reservoirs and can be easily tapped by standard vertical wells, shale gas remains trapped in its original source rock, the organic-rich shale that formed from the sedimentary deposition of mud, silt, clay, and organic matter on the floors of shallow seas.
• The development of hydraulic fracturing technology (also known as hydrofracturing, hydrofracking, or simply fracking) has also improved access to shale gas deposits. This process requires injecting large volumes of water mixed with sand and fluid chemicals into the well at high pressure to fracture the rock, increasing permeability and production rates. 
• (Already asked in Prelims)
• It’s a difficult and costly process.
• As per the US EIA 2015 report, India has got technically recoverable shale gas of 96 trillion cubic feet. The recoverable reserves are identified in Cambay, Krishna – Godavari, Cauvery, Damodar Valley, Upper Assam, Pranahita – Godavari, Rajasthan and Vindhya Basins.

Unconventional Gas Sources

• Coal bed methane (CBM)
• Coal mine methane (CMM)
• Shale gas
• Tight gas 

5. Coalbed Methane

• Coalbed methane (CBM or coal-bed methane is a form of natural gas extracted from coal beds.
• The term refers to methane adsorbed into the solid matrix of the coal. It is called ‘sweet gas’ because of its lack of hydrogen sulfide.
• Methane is stored within the coal by a process called adsorption. The methane is in a near-liquid state, lining the inside of pores within the coal (called the matrix).
• Unlike much natural gas from conventional reservoirs, coalbed methane contains very little heavier hydrocarbons such as propane or butane, and no natural-gas condensate. It often contains up to a few percent carbon dioxide.

6. Tight Gas

• Tight gas is natural gas trapped within a rock with extremely low permeability—typically limestone or sandstone. This is not to be confused with shale gas, which is natural gas trapped  within shale formations.
•  Tight gas is considered to be an unconventional source of natural gas because it requires significant hydraulic fracturing—a much more extensive process—to access the gas. This is because the low permeability of the rock (meaning the pores within the stone are poorly connected), makes it difficult for the gas to travel through them.
• Tight-gas reservoirs in Eocene formations in Gujarat state, Northeast India.

7. Biofuels

• A biofuel is a fuel that is produced through contemporary biological processes, such as agriculture and anaerobic digestion. If the source biomatter can regrow quickly, the resulting fuel is said to be a form of renewable energy.
• Biofuels can be derived directly from plants (i.e. energy crops), or indirectly from agricultural, commercial, domestic, and/or industrial wastes. Renewable biofuels generally involve contemporary carbon fixation, such as those that occur in plants or microalgae through the process of photosynthesis. Other renewable biofuels are made through the use or conversion of biomass . This biomass can be converted to convenient energy-containing substances in three different ways: thermal conversion, chemical conversion, and biochemical conversion.
• Biofuels are in theory carbon-neutral because the carbon dioxide that is absorbed by the plants is equal to the carbon dioxide that is released when the fuel is burned.
• Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermentation, mostly from carbohydrates produced in sugar or starch crops such as corn, sugarcane, or sweet sorghum.

8. Jatropha Curcas

• In India, there is a vast potential for the production of biodiesel from Jatropha curcas (called Jangli arandi in Hindi and Kattukkotai in Tamil) and Pongamia pinnata (The Indian Beech called Karanj in Hindi and Pungai in Tamil) as they occur in plenty in forests and wastelands.
• It is resistant to a high degree of aridity, allowing it to grow in deserts.
• The seeds contain 27–40% oil^[(average: 34.4%) that can be processed to produce a high-quality biodiesel fuel, usable in a standard diesel engine.
• Edible (non-toxic) provenances can be used for animal feed and food.

9. Algal Biofuel

• Algae biofuel is an alternative to liquid fossil fuels that uses algae as its source of energy-rich oils. Algae fuels are an alternative to commonly known biofuel sources, such as corn and sugarcane.
• The energy crisis and the world food crisis have ignited interest in algaculture (farming algae) for making biodiesel and other biofuels using land unsuitable for agriculture.

Among algal fuels’ attractive characteristics are that

• they can be grown with minimal impact on fresh water resources
• can be produced using saline and wastewater,
• have a high flash point,
• and are biodegradable and relatively harmless to the environment if spilled.

Algae can be used to produce ‘green diesel’  through a hydrotreating refinery process that breaks molecules down into shorter hydrocarbon chains used in diesel engines.

Microalgae – organisms capable of photosynthesis that are less than 0.4 mm in diameter, including the diatoms and cyanobacteria) .The preference for microalgae for biofuels has come about due largely to their less complex structure, fast growth rates, and high oil-content (for some species). However, some research is being done into using seaweeds for biofuels, probably due to the high availability of this resource.

Species of Alage suitable for Biofuel Production-

Botryococcus braunii, Chlorella, Dunaliella tertiolecta, Gracilaria ,Pleurochrysis carterae , Sargassum.

10. 13 Intangible Cultural Heritages of India- UNESCO List

• Koodiyattam: Sanskrit Theatre, Kerala
• Mudiyettu: a ritual theatre of Kerala
• The Tradition of Vedic Chanting
• Ramlila: the Traditional Performance of the Ramayana
• Ramman: religious festival and ritual theatre of the Garhwal Himalayas
• Kalbelia: folk songs and dances of Rajasthan
• Chhau dance: 3 distinct styles from the regions of Seraikella (Jharkhand), Purulia (Bengal) and Mayurbhanj (Odisha). Of these, the first two use masks.
• Buddhist chanting of Ladakh: recitation of sacred Buddhist texts in the trans-Himalayan Ladakh region, Jammu and Kashmir
• Sankirtana: ritual singing, drumming and dancing of Manipur
• Traditional brass and copper craft of utensil making among the Thatheras of Jandiala Guru,Punjab
• Yoga
• Nawrouz
• Kumbh Mela

11. Hagia Sofia

• World Heritage Site
• The Hagia Sophia World Heritage site was built in the 6th century by the Byzantine emperor Justinian as a cathedral of the Greek Orthodox Church before being converted to a mosque under the Ottoman Empire nine centuries later.
• It was declared a museum in 1934 after the secular modern Turkish republic was established in 1923 under the rule of Kemal Pasha.
• On July 10th, Turkey’s top administrative court handed down a decision to revoke Hagia Sophia’s status as a museum, paving the way for the 1,500-year-old former basilica to be opened as a mosque again with changes to Hagia Sophia’s architecture.
• It was admitted to the World Heritage List as part of the “Historic Areas of Istanbul” in December 1985.

12. Mahaparinirvana

• Mahaparinirvana in Buddhism refers to the ultimate state of Nirvana (everlasting, highest peace and happiness) entered by an awakened being at the moment of physical death.
• Kushinagar is one of the important Buddhist Pilgrimages sites and is also a part of the Buddhist Circuit as Lord Buddha attained Mahaparinirvana here.

13. Nagara Style of Temple Architecture

• The Nagara style of temple architecture is found in northern India. Nagara school is further subdivided into different schools based on region like Odisha, Khajuraho, Solanki etc.
• In the Nagara style, the temple is generally constructed on a upraised platform called jagati. Mandapas are present in front of the Garbhagriha. These are adorned with the Shikhara, the tallest one being above the Garbhagriha.

18. Sub Classification of SC/ST by States

• Supreme Court (SC) held that States can have subgroups among Scheduled Castes (SCs) / Scheduled Tribes (STs) for the sake of reservation.
• SC (five judges bench) held that States can subclassify SCs and STs in ‘Central List’ to provide preferential treatment to certain Scheduled Castes over others to ensure equal representation.
• Central List’ of SCs and STs is notified by President under Articles 341 and 342.
• Since a Bench of equal strength (five judges in this case) cannot overrule a previous decision, court referred it to a larger Bench.
• Previous Decision-Earlier in 2005, in E V Chinnaiah v  State of Andhra Pradesh and Others (five judges bench), SC ruled that only President has power to notify inclusion or exclusion of a caste as SC, and states  cannot tinker with the list.

19. Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005

• Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005 granted equal rights to women and men in ancestral property and to intestate succession in personal property where succession happens as per law and not through a will.
• Before the 2005 amendment, daughters were entitled only to a share of their father’s inheritance and weren’t independent coparceners (a person who has a birthright to parental property) like sons.
• Amendment had laid down a cutoff date of September 9, 2005 for claims, to  avoid legal complications. Certain SC rulings had subsequently said that law would not apply to cases where the father had died before the
  law came into effect.
• SC recently ruled that a Hindu woman’s right to be a joint heir to the ancestral property is by birth and does not depend on whether her father was alive or not when  the law was enacted in 2005 i.e. it has  retrospective effect.

20. Lok Adalats

• one of the alternative dispute redressal mechanisms, where disputes/cases pending in the court of law or at pre-litigation stage are settled amicably.
• Statutory status under the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987
• Award  by the Lok Adalats is deemed to be a decree of a civil court and is final and binding on all parties and no appeal against such an award lies before any court of law.
• No court fee payable when a matter is filed in a Lok Adalat
• Lok Adalats can deal with all Civil Cases, Matrimonial Disputes, Land Disputes, Partition/Property Disputes,  Labour Disputes etc., and compoundable criminal Cases.

Chhattisgarh became first state in the country to inaugurate State-level ‘e-Lok Adalat’.

21. Consumer Protection Act- 2019

Six “consumer rights” provided in the new Act:

• the right to be protected against the marketing of goods, products or services which are hazardous to life and property.
• the right to be informed about the quality, quantity,  potency, purity, standard and price of goods, products, or services to protect the consumer against unfair trade practices.
• the right to be assured, wherever possible, access to a variety of goods, products, or services at competitive  prices.
• the right to be heard and to be assured that consumer’s interests will receive due consideration at appropriate fora.
• the right to seek redressal against unfair trade practice or restrictive trade practices or unscrupulous exploitation of consu consumers; and
• the right to consumer awareness.

Earlier act was Consumer Protection Act,1986.

To read in detail– Live Law-Click Here

22. Traditional Medicines and AYUSH

• Click Here

23. Personal Data Protection Bill- 2019

• Click Here

24. Abraham Accord

• Israel and United Arab Emirates (UAE) signed major diplomatic agreement agreeing for full normalization of relations in exchange for Israel suspending annexation of occupied West Bank territory.
• Israel pledged to suspend its ambitions to annex parts of the West Bank.
• UAE became the first Gulf country to establish diplomatic and economic relations with Israel.
• Jordan and Egypt are the only two other Arab states to have diplomatic ties with Israel.

25. Equalization Levy

• EL is a direct tax applied to all non-resident ecommerce companies in India. 6% EL is applicable on payments for digital advertisement services received by  nonresident companies without a permanent establishment (PE) in India, if this exceeded Rs 1 lakh a year.
• 2% EL on-e-commerce operators also came into effect from April 2020.
• India defended its equalization levy (EL) on e-commerce companies against US.