Indus Valley
Civilisation
c. 3300 BCE β 1300 BCE Β· Harappan Culture
Discovery & Background
Who Discovered?
Harappa β Daya Ram Sahni (1921)
Mohenjo-daro β R.D. Banerji (1922). John Marshall coined “Indus Valley Civilisation.”
Geographic Spread
Largest of the three ancient world civilisations. Spread across Punjab, Sindh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, UP, Haryana, Balochistan & Afghanistan.
Other Names
Harappan Civilisation (after first discovered site); Indus-Saraswati Civilisation (due to presence on Ghaggar-Hakra = ancient Saraswati river).
Extent (4 Corners)
North: Manda (J&K) | South: Daimabad (Maharashtra) | East: Alamgirpur (UP) | West: Sutkagendor (Balochistan)
IVC was contemporary with Mesopotamia (Sumerian) and Egyptian Civilisations. The Indus script remains undeciphered β a perennial UPSC fact.
- Most IVC sites are in India, not Pakistan
- Over 1,500 sites identified; only ~3% excavated
- S.R. Rao discovered Lothal; A. Ghosh discovered Kalibangan
Chronological Phases
Pre-Harappan β Early β Mature β Late: “Please Every Morning Learn” β traces the entire arc of the civilisation!
Key Archaeological Sites
| Site | Location | Excavator | Unique Find / Significance |
|---|---|---|---|
| Harappa | Punjab, Pakistan (Ravi) | Daya Ram Sahni (1921) | First discovered; largest granary; “Cemetery H” culture; terracotta figurines |
| Mohenjo-daro | Sindh, Pakistan (Indus) | R.D. Banerji (1922) | Great Bath; Dancing Girl (bronze); Priest-King (steatite); College of Priests (?) |
| Lothal | Gujarat, India (Bhogava) | S.R. Rao (1955) | World’s first tidal dockyard; double burial; rice husk; fire altars; bead factory |
| Kalibangan | Rajasthan, India (Ghaggar) | A. Ghosh (1953); B.B. Lal | Earliest ploughed field; fire altars; camel bones; pre-Harappan layer below |
| Dholavira | Gujarat, India (Rann of Kutch) | R.S. Bisht (1990) | Three-part city (unique); largest signboard; water conservation; stadium-like structure |
| Chanhudaro | Sindh, Pakistan | M.G. Majumdar (1931) | Only site without a citadel; inkpot; lipstick; cartmaker’s shop |
| Banawali | Haryana, India (Ghaggar) | R.S. Bisht (1974) | Barley in large qty; lapis lazuli; good roads; pre-Harappan + Harappan layers |
| Surkotada | Gujarat, India | J.P. Joshi (1972) | First actual horse bones found (debated); unique fortification |
| Ropar (Rupnagar) | Punjab, India | Y.D. Sharma (1953) | First post-independence excavation; dog buried with human; copper axe |
| Alamgirpur | Uttar Pradesh, India | β | Easternmost site; cloth impression on trough |
| Sutkagendor | Balochistan/Iran border | β | Westernmost site; coastal trade post |
| Manda | Jammu & Kashmir, India | β | Northernmost site |
| Daimabad | Maharashtra, India | β | Southernmost site; bronze chariot, elephant, rhino figurines |
- UNESCO World Heritage: Mohenjo-daro (1980), Dholavira (2021 β India’s 40th WHS)
- Dholavira is in Khadir Bet island in the Rann of Kutch
- “Mound of the Dead” = Mohenjo-daro (literal Sindhi meaning)
Town Planning β The Marvel
The Harappans built the world’s first known urban sanitation system β an achievement Europe wouldn’t replicate for another 4,000 years.
β Archaeologists on IVC DrainageGrid Pattern & City Layout
Cities were laid out on a grid pattern with roads cutting at right angles. The cities were typically divided into two parts: a Citadel (raised western part β elites/administration) and a Lower Town (common people). Exception: Dholavira had a three-part division. Chanhudaro had no citadel.
Drainage System
Underground covered drains with inspection holes. House drains connected to main street drains. First planned sewage system in recorded history.
Houses
Burnt brick houses (1:2:4 ratio). Two-storey in cities. Doors/windows facing side lanes, NOT main street. Each house had a bathroom and personal well.
Great Bath (Mohenjo-daro)
12m Γ 7m Γ 2.4m deep. Waterproof gypsum plaster + bitumen lining. Steps on both ends. Used for ritual purification.
Granaries
Found at Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal. Harappa’s was the largest. Air ducts below floors suggest sophisticated grain storage and a state-managed economy.
Standardised Bricks
Ratio 1:2:4 uniformly across ALL sites β implies a central authority or shared building codes. Fire-baked (not sun-dried) for superior durability.
Water Management
Dholavira had 16 reservoirs, check dams, and channels for rainwater harvesting β the most elaborate water system of the ancient world.
Harappan bricks were fire-baked (burnt), unlike contemporaries who used sun-dried bricks. Uniform 1:2:4 ratio across 1,500+ sites implies standardisation and possibly centralised governance β a key UPSC inference point.
Economy & Agriculture
Crops Grown
Primarily agriculturalists. They cultivated wheat, barley, cotton (world’s first!), sesame, mustard, peas, and melon. Rice was grown at Lothal and Rangpur. Evidence of ploughed fields at Kalibangan only.
Animals Domesticated
Cattle (zebu/humped bull), buffalo, sheep, goat, pig, dog, cat, elephant, possibly camel (Kalibangan). Horse is conspicuously absent β a crucial distinction from Vedic culture. Surkotada yielded possible horse bones, but remains debated.
Weights & Measures
Binary system (1, 2, 4, 8β¦ 64), then decimal. Weights made of chert (flint). Standard unit ~13.7 grams. Uniformity across all sites implies a central trade authority.
Cotton: IVC was the world’s first to cultivate and weave cotton. Greeks called India “Sindon” from Sindh. This is a very frequent UPSC objective question.
- No evidence of temples hoarding wealth or a distinct warrior class
- Likely governed by a merchant oligarchy or priestly class
- No weapons of mass warfare found anywhere in IVC
Society & Polity
Social Structure
Evidence suggests a relatively egalitarian society. House sizes vary but no extreme concentration of luxury. No definitive palace found. The Priest-King statue implies a theocratic or priestly ruling class. Cemetery evidence shows minimal differentiation in burial goods.
Political Organisation
Uniformity in town planning, weights, brick sizes across thousands of km implies a central authority or well-networked administrative system. Theories: city-states, merchant guild rule, priestly government, loose confederation.
Dress & Ornaments
Cotton/woollen garments. Terracotta figurines show elaborate hairstyles. Jewellery in gold, silver, copper, shell, ivory, carnelian. Lipstick found at Chanhudaro.
Status of Women
No clear subordination evident. Mother Goddess figures are numerous. Women buried with minimal distinction from men. Cosmetic boxes suggest cultural sophistication.
Pottery
Wheel-turned, high quality. Painted black on red background. Geometric patterns, fish-scale designs, trees, peacocks. “Perforated pottery” (strainer) unique to IVC.
Burial Practices
Extended burial (N-S orientation). Grave goods indicate belief in afterlife. Fractional burial at Harappa. Cremation also practised. Double burial found at Lothal.
Religion & Beliefs
The Harappans had no monumental temples β yet their religious life was rich, intimate, and remarkably proto-Hindu in character.
β Interpretation by Marshall & later scholarsMother Goddess
Most common deity. Terracotta figurines of females with elaborate headdresses. Suggests fertility worship β possibly the forerunner of the Shakti cult.
Proto-Shiva / Pashupati
Seal showing a three-faced figure in yogic posture, surrounded by animals (elephant, tiger, rhino, buffalo, deer). Marshall called it “Proto-Shiva.” Seal No. 420 from Mohenjo-daro.
Tree & Nature Worship
Pipal (Ficus religiosa) tree worshipped. Unicorn bull is the most commonly depicted animal on seals. Animals were deified.
Fire Worship
Fire altars found at Lothal and Kalibangan β suggest organised ritual practices, possibly forerunners of Vedic yajnas.
Phallus & Ring Stones
Linga (phallus) and yoni (ring) stones found at Harappa β proto-Shaivism indicators. Marshall linked these to later Shaiva tradition.
Ritual Bathing
Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro suggests ritualistic purification β connecting to later Hindu traditions of tirtha (pilgrimage) and holy bathing.
No definitive temples found in IVC β key contrast with Mesopotamia and Egypt. Religion was likely domestic/private, not large-scale ceremonial.
- Unicorn is the most common seal motif, followed by zebu bull
- Swastika symbol found on IVC seals β one of its earliest known usages in the world
Arts, Crafts & Technology
Notable Artefacts
| Artefact | Site | Material | Significance |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dancing Girl | Mohenjo-daro | Bronze (lost-wax) | Realistic female figure; evidence of dance culture & advanced metallurgy |
| Priest-King | Mohenjo-daro | Steatite | Trefoil robe; headband; suggests priestly ruling class |
| Bull Figurine | Mohenjo-daro | Bronze | Shows knowledge of animal taming and casting technique |
| Toy Cart | Harappa | Terracotta | Evidence of wheeled transport technology |
| Seals (2,500+) | All major sites | Steatite | Writing, trade marks, religious imagery; most have script on top |
Metals & Crafts
Harappans knew copper, bronze, gold, silver, tin, and lead. They did NOT use iron β making IVC a Bronze Age / Chalcolithic civilisation. The lost-wax (cire-perdue) casting technique was mastered. Beads of carnelian, jasper, crystal, and lapis lazuli were high-value exports.
IVC did NOT have: Iron Β· Temples Β· Swords Β· Deciphered Script Β· Horse (clearly) Β· Cavalry / War Chariots. These absences define IVC as much as what was present.
The Undeciphered Script
The Harappan script remains one of the greatest unsolved mysteries in archaeology. Over 4,000 inscriptions on seals, pottery, and tablets. About 400β600 distinct signs β neither purely alphabetic nor purely pictographic.
Direction of Writing
Written right to left, sometimes in boustrophedon (alternating direction). Confirmed by wider spacing on right side of inscriptions.
Sign Count
~400β600 signs β too many for an alphabet (English has 26), too few for logographic writing (Chinese has 5,000+). Most signs appear on steatite seals.
Decipherment Attempts
No bilingual inscription (like the Rosetta Stone) found. Proposed links to Dravidian, Sanskrit, Sumerian β none conclusively accepted.
Dholavira Signboard
Largest Harappan inscription (10 signs on a wooden board) found at Dholavira β possibly a public notice or the city’s name. Made of white gypsum inlay.
Longest Harappan inscription: 26 signs. Script is non-Vedic and has no proven connection to Sanskrit. The script disappeared with the civilisation β no continuity into later Indian traditions is proven.
Trade & External Contacts
Internal Trade
Extensive overland trade using standardised weights, seals as trade marks, and bullock carts. Seals served as merchant identity tags or bill-of-lading equivalents.
External Trade
Trade with Mesopotamia (Sumer), Oman, Bahrain (ancient Dilmun), Egypt, and Central Asia. IVC cities referred to as “Meluhha” in Sumerian records. Exported cotton textiles, carnelian beads, copper, ivory. Imported tin and lapis lazuli.
- Harappan seals found in Mesopotamia; Mesopotamian cylinder seals found in IVC sites β confirms trade
- Lothal’s dockyard (220m Γ 37m) = world’s first known tidal dock
- “Meluhha” appears in Akkadian texts from 2300 BCE
- No evidence of tribute or conquest β trade appears entirely peaceful and commercial
The Great Decline β Theories
The decline of IVC (~1900β1500 BCE) is one of archaeology’s biggest debates. No single theory is fully accepted. Most scholars support a multi-causal explanation.
| Theory | Proponent | Evidence For | Criticism |
|---|---|---|---|
| Aryan Invasion | Mortimer Wheeler | Skeletons in Mohenjo-daro streets; Harappa fortification | Skeletons post-date urban decline; no mass warfare evidence; largely discredited |
| Floods / River Changes | Marshall, Mackay | Flood deposits; Mohenjo-daro rebuilt 7 times | Doesn’t explain inland site decline; IVC was flood-adapted |
| Drying of Saraswati | Several scholars | ~60% of IVC sites on Ghaggar-Hakra; satellite imagery of lost river | Timing disputed; may have been gradual |
| Climate Change / Drought | Giosan et al. (2012) | Monsoon weakening; isotope data; eastward migration of population | Best currently supported theory |
| Epidemic / Disease | β | Dense urban population; unburied bodies | No specific pathogen identified yet |
| Trade Collapse | β | Mesopotamian trade records end; economic disruption | More consequence than cause? |
Current academic consensus: combination of climate change (weakening monsoon β drought β eastward migration) + tectonic changes disrupting river systems. Aryan Invasion Theory is largely discredited β important update for UPSC.
- Post-decline population migrated east toward the Gangetic plains
- This migration possibly contributed to Early Vedic culture’s emergence
Always answer IVC decline as multi-causal: Climate change + River drying (Saraswati) + Trade collapse + Possible tectonic shifts. Never cite Aryan Invasion as the primary cause β it’s outdated.
IVC vs Vedic Civilisation
| Feature | IVC / Harappan | Vedic Civilisation |
|---|---|---|
| Time Period | 3300β1300 BCE | 1500β600 BCE |
| Base | Urban, Trade-based | Rural, Pastoral |
| Horse | Absent or marginal | Central (Ashvamedha) |
| Iron | Not used | Widely used (Later Vedic) |
| Script | Undeciphered, lost | Sanskrit β Brahmi |
| Religion | Mother Goddess, Proto-Shiva, no temples | Nature gods (Indra, Varuna), fire worship, Yajnas |
| Evidence Base | Archaeological only | Literary (Vedas) + some Archaeological |
| Burial | Extended inhumation (N-S) | Cremation |
| Economy | Trade & Agriculture | Cattle-rearing, Agriculture |
