The Human Relations School: Elton Mayo & The Hawthorne Revolution
Module Introduction: Discovering the Human Element
The Human Relations School represents a paradigm shift in organizational theory—a transition from viewing workers as mechanical parts in production systems to recognizing them as social beings with psychological needs and group dynamics. This revolutionary approach, pioneered by Elton Mayo and his colleagues at Harvard, fundamentally changed how organizations understand employee motivation, productivity, and satisfaction.
Through this module, you’ll explore the groundbreaking Hawthorne Studies, understand the key principles of human relations theory, and discover how these insights continue to shape modern management practices.
Part 1: Historical Context and Theoretical Foundations
Scientific Management Era (1910s)
Frederick Taylor’s focus on efficiency, time-motion studies, and worker as “economic man” motivated solely by money.
The Hawthorne Studies (1924-1932)
Western Electric’s experiments revealed unexpected findings about worker behavior and productivity.
Human Relations Movement (1930s-1950s)
Elton Mayo’s interpretation of Hawthorne data leads to new theories of worker motivation and organizational behavior.
Modern Organizational Behavior (1960s-Present)
Integration of human relations insights with other perspectives in comprehensive organizational theories.
Key Theorists of the Human Relations School
Elton Mayo (1880-1949)
Australian psychologist, Harvard professor
Led the Hawthorne Studies interpretation. Emphasized social factors, informal groups, and employee emotions in workplace productivity.
Key Work: “The Human Problems of an Industrial Civilization” (1933)
Fritz Roethlisberger (1898-1974)
American sociologist, Harvard researcher
Co-authored major Hawthorne findings. Focused on worker sentiments, social systems within organizations, and management-worker relations.
Key Work: “Management and the Worker” (with Dickson, 1939)
William J. Dickson (1904-1970)
American sociologist, Western Electric executive
Co-directed Hawthorne experiments. Documented informal organization and worker social systems affecting productivity.
Key Work: “Management and the Worker” (with Roethlisberger, 1939)
Kurt Lewin (1890-1947)
German-American psychologist
Extended human relations principles through field theory and group dynamics. Emphasized participatory leadership and democratic decision-making.
Key Work: “Field Theory in Social Science” (1951)
Part 2: The Hawthorne Studies – A Detailed Examination
The Hawthorne Effect: A Foundational Concept
The term “Hawthorne Effect” refers to the phenomenon where individuals modify their behavior in response to being observed. This discovery emerged unexpectedly from the experiments and fundamentally challenged previous assumptions about workplace motivation.
Key Insight: The attention given to workers, rather than changes in physical conditions, was what improved productivity.
The Four Phases of Hawthorne Experiments
Illumination Experiments (1924-1927)
Objective: Test relationship between lighting levels and productivity
Method: Varied lighting intensity for test and control groups
Surprising Finding: Productivity increased regardless of lighting changes
Conclusion: Psychological factors overshadowed physical conditions
Relay Assembly Test Room (1927-1932)
Objective: Study effects of work conditions on productivity
Method: Small group of women assembling telephone relays under varying conditions
Key Finding: Productivity rose with any change (positive or negative)
Conclusion: Attention and special treatment increased motivation
Mass Interviewing Program (1928-1931)
Objective: Understand worker attitudes and sentiments
Method: Interviewed over 21,000 employees using non-directive approach
Key Finding: Workers expressed social needs and frustrations
Conclusion: Emotional factors significantly impact work behavior
Bank Wiring Observation Room (1931-1932)
Objective: Study social organization and group norms
Method: Observing male workers wiring telephone banks
Key Finding: Informal groups established production norms
Conclusion: Social systems regulate individual productivity
Research Methodology Innovations
Experimental Design
Controlled Experiments: Systematic variation of working conditions while controlling other variables.
Test and Control Groups: Comparison between groups receiving interventions and those without.
Longitudinal Approach: Extended observation periods (up to 5 years for some studies).
Data Collection Techniques
Participant Observation: Researchers embedded in work settings as neutral observers.
Non-Directive Interviewing: Open-ended questions allowing free expression of worker sentiments.
Systematic Recording: Detailed documentation of behaviors, conversations, and interactions.
Analysis Approach
Pattern Recognition: Identifying recurring themes in worker behavior and attitudes.
Comparative Analysis: Contrasting findings across different experimental phases.
Theoretical Interpretation: Moving beyond data to develop explanatory frameworks.
Part 3: Key Findings and Principles
1. The Social Worker
Workers are not isolated individuals but social beings influenced by group dynamics, relationships, and organizational culture.
Evidence: Bank wiring room observations showed workers forming cohesive groups with shared norms.
Implication: Managers must consider social systems, not just individual performance.
2. Informal Organization
Alongside formal structures, organizations develop informal networks that significantly influence behavior and productivity.
Evidence: Workers established unofficial production standards and social hierarchies.
Implication: Effective management requires understanding both formal and informal systems.
3. Attention and Recognition
Productivity increases when workers feel noticed, valued, and part of something important (Hawthorne Effect).
Evidence: Relay assembly productivity rose with any experimental change that showed management interest.
Implication: Psychological attention matters as much as material incentives.
4. Group Norms and Pressures
Work groups establish their own standards of acceptable productivity, often differing from management expectations.
Evidence: Bank wirers enforced production ceilings through social pressure.
Implication: Changing behavior requires addressing group norms, not just individual attitudes.
5. Communication and Participation
Workers perform better when they understand the reasons for changes and participate in decision-making.
Evidence: Interview program revealed worker frustration with lack of information and consultation.
Implication: Two-way communication improves morale and cooperation.
6. Leadership Style Matters
Supervisory approach significantly impacts worker satisfaction and productivity more than technical competence alone.
Evidence: Workers responded better to supervisors showing interest in their wellbeing.
Implication: Human relations skills are essential for effective supervision.
The Organizational Climate Framework
Productivity
Management Attention
Feeling valued and recognized
Group Cohesion
Social bonds and teamwork
Communication
Information sharing and feedback
Participative Decision-making
Involvement in choices
Informal Norms
Unofficial standards and values
Supervisory Style
Leadership approach and support
Part 4: Comparison with Other Management Theories
| Aspect | Scientific Management (Taylor) | Bureaucratic Theory (Weber) | Human Relations (Mayo) | Contemporary Synthesis |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| View of Worker | Economic man motivated by money | Rational official following rules | Social being seeking belonging | Complex individual with multiple needs |
| Primary Focus | Efficiency and productivity | Structure and predictability | Relationships and morale | Integration of technical and social systems |
| Motivation Theory | Economic incentives (piece rates) | Career advancement and security | Social needs and recognition | Multiple factors (Maslow’s hierarchy) |
| Organization Design | Optimized work processes | Hierarchical bureaucracy | Informal groups and networks | Flexible, adaptive structures |
| Leadership Style | Technical expert directing work | Impersonal rule enforcer | Supportive facilitator | Adaptive, situational leadership |
| Conflict Resolution | Management decision | Rule application | Communication and understanding | Collaborative problem-solving |
| Key Contribution | Work process optimization | Organizational stability and fairness | Importance of human element | Balanced, holistic approach |
| Major Limitation | Ignores human psychology | Creates rigid bureaucracy | Overemphasizes social factors | Complex implementation |
Theoretical Evolution: From Human Relations to Organizational Behavior
Classical Theories (1900-1920)
Focus: Structure, efficiency, control
Theorists: Taylor, Fayol, Weber
Human Relations (1930-1950)
Focus: Social needs, groups, morale
Theorists: Mayo, Roethlisberger, Lewin
Behavioral Science (1950-1970)
Focus: Motivation, leadership, decision-making
Theorists: McGregor, Maslow, Herzberg
Contingency Theory (1970-Present)
Focus: Adaptation, fit, situational factors
Theorists: Lawrence, Lorsch, Fiedler
Part 5: Critical Evaluation and Modern Applications
Criticisms and Limitations
Methodological Critiques
Sample Bias: Small, non-random samples limit generalizability
Researcher Bias: Potential for interpreting data to support preconceived ideas
Overinterpretation: Limited evidence for some sweeping conclusions
Simplification: Hawthorne Effect may oversimplify complex phenomena
Theoretical Limitations
Oversocialization: Underestimates economic and individual factors
Managerial Bias: Focuses on productivity rather than worker welfare
Group Conformity: May encourage excessive conformity over individual initiative
Cultural Specificity: Findings may not apply across different cultural contexts
Ethical Concerns
Manipulation: Using social psychology to control worker behavior
Informed Consent: Workers may not have fully understood their participation
Power Imbalance: Research conducted by management on employees
Instrumentalization: Treating workers as means to productivity ends
Contemporary Applications and Relevance
Employee Engagement Programs
Modern engagement initiatives build on human relations principles by focusing on:
- Regular feedback and recognition
- Team building activities
- Open communication channels
- Participative decision-making
Connection: Direct application of Hawthorne findings about attention and involvement
Organizational Culture Development
Contemporary culture initiatives emphasize:
- Building strong social networks
- Developing shared values and norms
- Creating supportive work environments
- Fostering psychological safety
Connection: Extends human relations focus on informal organization and group dynamics
Leadership Development
Modern leadership training incorporates:
- Emotional intelligence development
- Coaching and mentoring skills
- Team facilitation abilities
- Relationship building competencies
Connection: Builds on human relations emphasis on supervisory style and interpersonal skills
Case Study: Google’s Project Aristotle (2012-2016)
Google’s research into effective teams directly echoes Hawthorne Studies methodology and findings:
Research Method
Studied 180+ teams using quantitative and qualitative methods over 4 years
Connection: Similar to Hawthorne’s mixed-methods longitudinal approach
Key Finding
Psychological safety (social comfort) was the most important factor in team effectiveness
Connection: Echoes human relations focus on social factors over technical skills
Practical Application
Google implemented team norms and communication practices to build psychological safety
Connection: Similar to Hawthorne recommendations about supervisory practices
Conclusion: Nearly a century later, the core human relations insight—that social dynamics matter more than individual capability—continues to be validated in modern organizational research.
Part 6: Legacy and Continuing Influence
The Human Relations Legacy in Modern Management
Human Resource Management
Modern HR practices incorporate human relations principles through employee assistance programs, recognition systems, and team development initiatives.
Example: 360-degree feedback systems that emphasize communication and development
Organizational Development
OD interventions build on human relations foundations through team building, process consultation, and organizational culture work.
Example: Kurt Lewin’s action research model extending human relations principles
Quality Management
Total Quality Management and continuous improvement initiatives incorporate participative approaches and employee involvement.
Example: Quality circles that engage workers in problem-solving
Leadership Theory
Transformational, servant, and authentic leadership models emphasize relationships, communication, and employee development.
Example: Relationship-oriented leadership styles in contingency theories
Conclusion: The Enduring Human Relations Insight
The Human Relations School fundamentally transformed our understanding of organizations by introducing a simple yet revolutionary idea: organizations are not just technical systems for production, but social systems of human relationships.
Key Takeaways
Beyond Economic Man
Workers are motivated by social needs, recognition, and belonging, not just money
The Power of Attention
Simply paying attention to workers can significantly impact their performance
Informal Organization Matters
Unofficial groups and norms powerfully influence organizational outcomes
While the Human Relations School has been criticized and extended by subsequent theories, its core insight remains valid: effective management requires understanding and working with the human and social dimensions of organizations. In an era of knowledge work, remote teams, and digital collaboration, these human factors may be more important than ever.
Final Reflection: The most sophisticated organizational structures and advanced technologies will underperform if they don’t account for the basic human needs for recognition, belonging, and meaningful connection that Elton Mayo and his colleagues identified nearly a century ago.
