Science, Technology & Social Change: UPSC Sociology Module

Science, Technology & Social Change — Visual + Explanatory Guide

Science and technology (S&T) reshape economies, states, culture and everyday life. This module explains how S&T produces knowledge, drives innovation and capitalism, creates risks that demand reflexive governance, reorganises society into networks, and embeds power/knowledge and ethics. We cover: Merton, Popper, Kuhn (knowledge); Marx, Schumpeter (capitalism); Beck, Giddens (risk/reflexivity); Castells (network society); Foucault (power/knowledge); Jonas, Haraway (ethics/STS).

1) Conceptual Overview — From Knowledge to Networks & Risk

Knowledge production (norms, methods) → innovation (creative destruction) → social restructuring (work, state, culture). In late modernity, S&T also generates manufactured risks (Beck) and requires reflexive governance (Giddens). Digitalisation creates a network society (Castells), while power/knowledge circulates through expert systems and surveillance (Foucault). Ethics and sustainability (Jonas, Haraway) temper trajectories.

2) Knowledge Production — Merton, Popper, Kuhn

Merton describes science’s ethos (CUDOS: Communalism, Universalism, Disinterestedness, Organised Skepticism) that institutionalises reliable knowledge. Popper argues science advances via falsifiability—bold conjectures tested against reality. Kuhn shows normal science within paradigms, punctuated by paradigm shifts in scientific revolutions. Together: norms + method + historical dynamics.

3) Technology & Capitalism — Marx and Schumpeter

Marx: technology reorganises production and class relations; capital seeks productivity gains but also generates alienation and crises. Schumpeter: creative destruction—entrepreneurs, credit and innovation produce waves (Kondratieff), disrupting old firms/sectors. Policy tension: innovation vs protection.

ThinkerCore ClaimMechanismStrengthLimitation
MarxTech changes class relationsAccumulation & crisesPower & distribution focusInnovation dynamics underplayed
SchumpeterCreative destructionEntrepreneur/credit wavesExplains disruptionSocial costs externalised

4) Risk & Reflexivity — Beck and Giddens

Beck: modern societies face manufactured risks (nuclear, biotech, climate) not reducible to class; hazards are global, invisible, contested by experts. Giddens: reflexive modernisation—institutions and citizens constantly monitor information and adjust practices; trust in expert systems is ambivalent.

5) Network Society — Castells

Castells: digital networks reorganise economy, state and culture. We live in informational capitalism where value comes from information flows; power lies in programming and switching networks. Outcomes: flexibility, global connectivity, but also precarity and platform dominance.

6) Power/Knowledge — Foucault

Foucault: knowledge is never neutral; it is entwined with power. Modern societies deploy disciplinary power (schools, hospitals, prisons) and biopower (population management). Technologies extend surveillance and normalisation; resistance involves counter-knowledges and alternative discourses.

7) Ethics, Environment & STS — Jonas and Haraway

Hans Jonas: an ethic of responsibility—technological power extends far into the future; act so that humanity and nature can endure. Donna Haraway and STS perspectives emphasise co-production of science, technology, and society; challenge binaries (human/machine, nature/culture) and foreground situated knowledges. Sustainability and inclusion become core design criteria.

8) Comparative Lenses — Quick Revision Tables

LensCore ClaimMechanismStrengthLimitation
MertonCUDOS ethosNorms guide inquiryExplains reliabilityIdeal vs practice gap
PopperFalsifiabilityRefutation/improvementClear methodUnderdetermination
KuhnParadigmsNormal→crisis→shiftHistorical realismRelativism worry
MarxTech & classAccumulation/conflictPower focusInnovation nuance
SchumpeterDisruptionEntrepreneur/creditExplains changeSocial costs
BeckRisk societyGlobal hazardsPolicy urgencyOperationalisation
GiddensReflexivityMonitoring/adjustmentAgency spaceTrust dilemmas
CastellsNetwork societyFlows/platformsDigital power mapMateriality underplayed
FoucaultPower/knowledgeDiscipline/biopowerUnmasks neutralityNormative guidance?
Jonas/HarawayResponsibility/STSEthics/co-productionFuture/situatedTrade-off tensions

9) India Focus — Platforms, Public Tech, Risk & Inclusion

Indian debates: digital public infrastructure (Aadhaar/UPI/ONDC), platform work (precarity, labour rights), data governance, AI in welfare/education/health, biotech & environment (GM crops, pollution, climate). Balanced approach: innovation + competition + privacy + safety + inclusion.

DomainOpportunityRiskPolicy Lever
Digital PlatformsReach, efficiencyMonopoly, precarityCompetition + labour standards
Data/AIBetter targetingPrivacy, biasData protection, audits
BiotechYield/healthEcology, ethicsPrecaution + transparency
Energy/ClimateGreen jobsTransition costsJust transition
EdTech/HealthTechAccess/scaleQuality/safetyStandards + evaluation

10) UPSC Answer Toolkit — How to Write

  • Define the frame: S&T as knowledge→innovation→restructuring with risks and networks.
  • Pick 2–3 lenses suited to the question (e.g., Beck+Giddens for hazards; Castells+Foucault for platforms/surveillance; Marx+Schumpeter for industry).
  • Show mechanism with a diagram reference (e.g., Diagram 3 risk loop, Diagram 4 network layers).
  • Indianise: DPI, data governance, platform work, biotech debates, climate transition.
  • Conclude: innovation with responsibility—competition, privacy, safety, inclusion, sustainability.
Memory keys: CUDOS + falsifiability + paradigms; creative destruction vs protection; risk society needs reflexive governance; networks reorganise power; power/knowledge shapes subjects; ethics anchors the future.
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