Science, Technology & Social Change — Visual + Explanatory Guide
Science and technology (S&T) reshape economies, states, culture and everyday life. This module explains how S&T produces knowledge, drives innovation and capitalism, creates risks that demand reflexive governance, reorganises society into networks, and embeds power/knowledge and ethics. We cover: Merton, Popper, Kuhn (knowledge); Marx, Schumpeter (capitalism); Beck, Giddens (risk/reflexivity); Castells (network society); Foucault (power/knowledge); Jonas, Haraway (ethics/STS).
1) Conceptual Overview — From Knowledge to Networks & Risk
Knowledge production (norms, methods) → innovation (creative destruction) → social restructuring (work, state, culture). In late modernity, S&T also generates manufactured risks (Beck) and requires reflexive governance (Giddens). Digitalisation creates a network society (Castells), while power/knowledge circulates through expert systems and surveillance (Foucault). Ethics and sustainability (Jonas, Haraway) temper trajectories.
2) Knowledge Production — Merton, Popper, Kuhn
Merton describes science’s ethos (CUDOS: Communalism, Universalism, Disinterestedness, Organised Skepticism) that institutionalises reliable knowledge. Popper argues science advances via falsifiability—bold conjectures tested against reality. Kuhn shows normal science within paradigms, punctuated by paradigm shifts in scientific revolutions. Together: norms + method + historical dynamics.
3) Technology & Capitalism — Marx and Schumpeter
Marx: technology reorganises production and class relations; capital seeks productivity gains but also generates alienation and crises. Schumpeter: creative destruction—entrepreneurs, credit and innovation produce waves (Kondratieff), disrupting old firms/sectors. Policy tension: innovation vs protection.
| Thinker | Core Claim | Mechanism | Strength | Limitation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Marx | Tech changes class relations | Accumulation & crises | Power & distribution focus | Innovation dynamics underplayed |
| Schumpeter | Creative destruction | Entrepreneur/credit waves | Explains disruption | Social costs externalised |
4) Risk & Reflexivity — Beck and Giddens
Beck: modern societies face manufactured risks (nuclear, biotech, climate) not reducible to class; hazards are global, invisible, contested by experts. Giddens: reflexive modernisation—institutions and citizens constantly monitor information and adjust practices; trust in expert systems is ambivalent.
5) Network Society — Castells
Castells: digital networks reorganise economy, state and culture. We live in informational capitalism where value comes from information flows; power lies in programming and switching networks. Outcomes: flexibility, global connectivity, but also precarity and platform dominance.
6) Power/Knowledge — Foucault
Foucault: knowledge is never neutral; it is entwined with power. Modern societies deploy disciplinary power (schools, hospitals, prisons) and biopower (population management). Technologies extend surveillance and normalisation; resistance involves counter-knowledges and alternative discourses.
7) Ethics, Environment & STS — Jonas and Haraway
Hans Jonas: an ethic of responsibility—technological power extends far into the future; act so that humanity and nature can endure. Donna Haraway and STS perspectives emphasise co-production of science, technology, and society; challenge binaries (human/machine, nature/culture) and foreground situated knowledges. Sustainability and inclusion become core design criteria.
8) Comparative Lenses — Quick Revision Tables
| Lens | Core Claim | Mechanism | Strength | Limitation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Merton | CUDOS ethos | Norms guide inquiry | Explains reliability | Ideal vs practice gap |
| Popper | Falsifiability | Refutation/improvement | Clear method | Underdetermination |
| Kuhn | Paradigms | Normal→crisis→shift | Historical realism | Relativism worry |
| Marx | Tech & class | Accumulation/conflict | Power focus | Innovation nuance |
| Schumpeter | Disruption | Entrepreneur/credit | Explains change | Social costs |
| Beck | Risk society | Global hazards | Policy urgency | Operationalisation |
| Giddens | Reflexivity | Monitoring/adjustment | Agency space | Trust dilemmas |
| Castells | Network society | Flows/platforms | Digital power map | Materiality underplayed |
| Foucault | Power/knowledge | Discipline/biopower | Unmasks neutrality | Normative guidance? |
| Jonas/Haraway | Responsibility/STS | Ethics/co-production | Future/situated | Trade-off tensions |
9) India Focus — Platforms, Public Tech, Risk & Inclusion
Indian debates: digital public infrastructure (Aadhaar/UPI/ONDC), platform work (precarity, labour rights), data governance, AI in welfare/education/health, biotech & environment (GM crops, pollution, climate). Balanced approach: innovation + competition + privacy + safety + inclusion.
| Domain | Opportunity | Risk | Policy Lever |
|---|---|---|---|
| Digital Platforms | Reach, efficiency | Monopoly, precarity | Competition + labour standards |
| Data/AI | Better targeting | Privacy, bias | Data protection, audits |
| Biotech | Yield/health | Ecology, ethics | Precaution + transparency |
| Energy/Climate | Green jobs | Transition costs | Just transition |
| EdTech/HealthTech | Access/scale | Quality/safety | Standards + evaluation |
10) UPSC Answer Toolkit — How to Write
- Define the frame: S&T as knowledge→innovation→restructuring with risks and networks.
- Pick 2–3 lenses suited to the question (e.g., Beck+Giddens for hazards; Castells+Foucault for platforms/surveillance; Marx+Schumpeter for industry).
- Show mechanism with a diagram reference (e.g., Diagram 3 risk loop, Diagram 4 network layers).
- Indianise: DPI, data governance, platform work, biotech debates, climate transition.
- Conclude: innovation with responsibility—competition, privacy, safety, inclusion, sustainability.
