Science, Scientific Method, and Critique (Sociology)
Can sociology be a science? What does a scientific method look like for studying human meanings, institutions, and power? This module explains the logic of scientific inquiry in sociology, its classic forms (positivism), alternative logics (interpretivism, critical realism), and key critiques (phenomenology, ethnomethodology, critical theory, feminist and postmodern perspectives). It ends with a UPSC-oriented synthesis on “sociology as science.”
I. What Counts as ‘Science’ in Sociology?
| Criterion |
Meaning in Social Science |
Illustration |
| Systematicity |
Ordered procedures: concepts → hypotheses → data → inference. |
Durkheim’s Suicide correlates rates with integration/regulation. |
| Empiricism |
Claims are open to observation/measurement or intersubjective checking. |
Surveys, censuses, archival records, ethnography. |
| Explanation |
Accounts identify causes/mechanisms, not mere description. |
Weber: beliefs → economic conduct (Protestant ethic). |
| Critical Scrutiny |
Claims must be open to falsification or serious challenge. |
Popper: risky predictions preferred to confirmatory truisms. |
II. The Scientific Method (Generic Model in Sociology)
- 1. Problem Formulation: Specify research question; define population/units.
- 2. Conceptualization: Define concepts; map variables; build theoretical frame.
- 3. Hypothesis/Proposition: Derive testable statements or guiding questions.
- 4. Research Design: Choose method (survey/ethnography/mixed); sampling strategy.
- 5. Data Collection: Instruments (questionnaire, schedule, interview, observation).
- 6. Analysis & Inference: Quant (descriptive/inferential stats) or Qual (coding, themes).
- 7. Theory Development/Refinement: Confirm, falsify, or modify theoretical claims.
- 8. Replication & Ethics: Transparency, reanalysis, adherence to ethical norms.
Flowchart: Research Logic in Sociology
Problem & Concepts (Theory & Literature)
↓
Hypotheses / Research Questions
↓
Design → Methods → Data (Survey/Ethnography/Mixed)
↓
Analysis → Inference → Theory Refinement
III. Positivism and Interpretivism: Two Classical Orientations
| Dimension |
Positivism (Comte, Durkheim) |
Interpretivism (Weber, Schutz) |
| Ontology |
Social facts are external “things”. |
Reality constituted by meanings/subjectivity. |
| Epistemology |
Explanation via regularities/laws; verification. |
Understanding (Verstehen) of motives; interpretation. |
| Method |
Quantification, statistics, comparatives. |
Qualitative, ethnography, ideal types. |
| Exemplar |
Durkheim’s Suicide. |
Weber’s Protestant Ethic; Schutz’s lifeworld. |
IV. Philosophy of Science in Sociology: Popper, Kuhn, Lakatos, Feyerabend
| Thinker |
Core Proposal |
Implication for Sociology |
UPSC Hook |
| Karl Popper |
Science advances via falsification, not verification. |
Prefer risky, refutable hypotheses; avoid ad-hoc saves. |
Test poverty models by predictions, not post-hoc fits. |
| Thomas Kuhn |
Normal science within paradigms; revolutions shift them. |
Multiple paradigms in sociology (functionalism, conflict, interactionism). |
Paradigm pluralism explains method debates. |
| Imre Lakatos |
Research programmes with hard cores & protective belts. |
Judge programmes by progressive (novel facts) vs degenerating. |
E.g., world-systems vs modernization programmes. |
| Paul Feyerabend |
Methodological anarchism: “anything goes” historically. |
Warns against rigid method; context-sensitive pluralism. |
Supports mixed/innovative designs in fieldwork. |
V. Critical Realism (Roy Bhaskar) in Sociology
Critical realism distinguishes between: (a) the real (causal mechanisms), (b) the actual (events), and (c) the empirical (experienced/observed). Social structures are real though unobservable directly; they generate tendencies observed as patterns. Hence, sociology can be scientific by retroducing underlying mechanisms (e.g., class, patriarchy) from observed effects.
| Layer |
Meaning |
Example (Sociology) |
| Real |
Generative mechanisms/structures. |
Capitalist relations; gender norms; caste order. |
| Actual |
Events whether observed or not. |
Hiring decisions; wage gaps; segregation acts. |
| Empirical |
Experienced/recorded observations. |
Survey results; interviews; admin data. |
VI. Methods: Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Designs
| Approach |
Strengths |
Limits |
Typical Tools |
Illustrations |
| Quantitative |
Generalizable, comparable, causal modeling. |
Thin on meanings/context. |
Surveys, experiments, secondary data, statistics. |
Census analysis; NSS/NSO; crime statistics. |
| Qualitative |
Depth, context, meanings, process tracing. |
Limited generalization; researcher effects. |
Ethnography, interviews, focus groups, documents. |
Chicago School urban ethnographies; village studies. |
| Mixed/Triangulation |
Balances depth and breadth; validity checks. |
Complex design; resource intensive. |
Sequential/explanatory or concurrent designs. |
Education/health inequality studies combining survey + interviews. |
Flowchart: Triangulation for Robust Findings
Quantitative Evidence (Patterns/Effects)
⇄
Qualitative Evidence (Mechanisms/Meanings)
↓
Integrated Inference (Stronger Validity)
VII. Verification vs Falsification: Testing Sociological Claims
| Aspect |
Verification (Logical Positivism) |
Falsification (Popper) |
| Goal |
Accumulate confirming instances. |
Design severe tests to refute. |
| Risk |
Trivial confirmations count as “support”. |
Only bold, refutable claims advance knowledge. |
| Practice |
Correlation = explanation. |
Predictive failures trigger revision/rejection. |
VIII. Value-Neutrality, Reflexivity, and Ethics
- Weber’s Value-Neutrality: Keep facts and values distinct in analysis; disclose standpoint.
- Reflexivity: Acknowledge researcher’s position, effects on field, and power dynamics.
- Ethics: Informed consent, anonymity, do-no-harm, data integrity, feedback to participants.
IX. Major Critiques of Scientific Method in Sociology
| Perspective |
Core Critique |
What It Urges |
Examples/Notes |
| Phenomenology (Schutz) |
Positivism ignores lived meanings (lifeworld). |
Interpret subjective constructions systematically. |
Typifications; intersubjectivity. |
| Ethnomethodology (Garfinkel) |
Rules of everyday order are produced in interaction. |
Study conversational methods; breaching experiments. |
Members’ methods create social reality. |
| Symbolic Interactionism (Blumer) |
Large-N methods miss processual meanings. |
Qualitative, sensitizing concepts. |
Self/identity as emergent in interaction. |
| Critical Theory (Horkheimer, Adorno, Habermas) |
Value-free science can naturalize domination. |
Emancipatory interest; critique of ideology. |
Communication, lifeworld vs system. |
| Feminist Methodology |
Androcentric bias in concepts/samples. |
Standpoint, reflexivity, ethics of care. |
Gendered power in research process. |
| Postmodernism (Lyotard, Baudrillard) |
Suspicion of grand narratives/laws. |
Local, plural, contextual knowledges. |
Discourse/power; simulacra. |
X. Classic Case Studies: Scientific Logic in Action
- Durkheim – Suicide: Operationalized integration/regulation; used comparative statistics to test theory against common-sense explanations.
- Weber – Protestant Ethic: Historical/comparative method; ideal types; causal adequacy between beliefs and economic conduct.
- Hawthorne Studies (Mayo): Showed observer effects/social relations shaping productivity; refined research design and ethics.
- Chicago School Ethnographies: Participant observation in urban neighborhoods; built grounded theory from field data.
- M. N. Srinivas – Village Studies: Mixed methods to identify dominant caste, Sanskritization as mechanisms of social change.
XI. Can Sociology be a Science? A Balanced Synthesis
| Position |
Claim |
UPSC-Ready Line |
| Yes (Conditional) |
If science = systematic, evidence-based, critical, then sociology qualifies. |
Sociology is scientific in method, plural in logic. |
| Qualified Skepticism |
Human meanings and reflexivity limit nomothetic laws. |
Prefer mechanisms/tendencies over universal laws. |
| Middle Path |
Adopt plural methodologies; triangulate; practice reflexive ethics. |
“Critical-realist, mixed-method sociology” earns highest marks. |
XII. Quick Revision Bullets
- Science in sociology = systematic, empirical, explanatory, and critical.
- Positivism vs Interpretivism: facts/laws vs meanings/Verstehen.
- Popper–Kuhn–Lakatos–Feyerabend: testing, paradigms, programmes, pluralism.
- Critical realism: infer mechanisms beneath observed patterns.
- Methods: quant, qual, and triangulation for validity.
- Critiques: phenomenology, ethnomethodology, critical theory, feminist, postmodern.
- Best practice: reflexivity, ethics, transparent inference; mechanisms not dogmatic laws.
Two-line takeaway: Sociology is scientific when it is systematic, evidence-based, and open to refutation, yet sensitive to meanings and context. The highest-scoring approach blends critical realism, triangulation, and reflexive ethics.
