Block 2: Political Process, New Social Movements, Collective Action & Revolutions
1) Political Process Theory (PPT) — Tilly, McAdam, Jenkins
PPT explains movements by focusing on opportunity structures, mobilizing structures, and framing within a changing political environment.
1.1 Charles Tilly — Repertoires & Political Opportunity
- Repertoires of Contention: historically available forms of protest (petitions, strikes, demonstrations) that actors know how to deploy.
- Political Opportunity: openings, alignments, state capacity & elite divisions that affect success.
- WUNC displays: Worthiness, Unity, Numbers, Commitment as public signals of strength.
1.2 Doug McAdam — Political Opportunity Structures (POS)
- Key dimensions: openness of polity, elite alignments, state capacity/repression, and presence of elite allies.
- Movements arise when POS + organizational strength + cognitive liberation (belief change) coincide.
1.3 Craig Jenkins — Resource & Opportunity Integration
- Bridges Resource Mobilization (from Block 1) with POS: movements succeed when resources are strategically aligned with opportunities and frames.
Flow — Political Process Logic
Political Opportunities
openings, allies, splits
openings, allies, splits
Mobilizing Structures
SMOs, networks
SMOs, networks
Framing
diagnosis, prognosis, motivation
diagnosis, prognosis, motivation
Repertoires
marches, strikes, PILs
marches, strikes, PILs
Outcomes
policy, culture
policy, culture
| Concept | Explains | UPSC Illustration | Paired Lens |
|---|---|---|---|
| POS | Why certain times/contexts enable protest | Elite splits → reform windows | RM (resources), Frames (Snow/Benford) |
| Repertoire | Why specific tactics recur | Petitions → PIL → social media campaigns | Media ecology, legal venues |
| WUNC | How movements signal legitimacy | Peaceful mass rallies, diverse coalitions | Habermas (public sphere) |
2) New Social Movements — Touraine, Melucci, Habermas, Offe
NSM shifts attention from class redistribution to identity, culture, lifestyle, and rights (environmentalism, feminism, LGBTQ+, peace, human rights). They operate in post-industrial contexts with new organizational forms.
2.1 Alain Touraine — Historicity & Social Actors
- Movements are central historical actors in shaping society (not just responses to strain).
- Conflict is over control of cultural models and historicity (who defines societal direction).
2.2 Alberto Melucci — Collective Identity & Networks
- Focus on collective identity: shared definitions negotiated through interaction.
- Submerged networks: latent ties sustain action between public events.
- Movements are “laboratories of meaning” — producing alternative lifestyles and symbols.
2.3 Jürgen Habermas — Public Sphere & Lifeworld
- NSMs defend the lifeworld against system colonization by money and bureaucracy.
- Through deliberation, they generate communicative power that pressures policy.
2.4 Claus Offe — Postmaterial Values & New Middle Class
- NSMs draw on postmaterialist values (autonomy, participation, quality of life) and educated strata.
Flow — From Identity to Influence (NSM)
Identity Work
who we are
who we are
Frames
diagnose & motivate
diagnose & motivate
Networks
submerged & public
submerged & public
Public Sphere
visibility & discourse
visibility & discourse
Policy/Culture Change
| Feature | NSM Pattern | Contrast (Old Movements) | UPSC Use |
|---|---|---|---|
| Issue Focus | Identity, culture, rights, ecology | Class redistribution | Explain environmental/feminist waves |
| Organization | Decentralized networks | Centralized unions/parties | Digital coordination; horizontality |
| Repertoires | Symbolic action, media, courts | Strikes, mass rallies | Strategic litigation & campaigns |
3) Collective Action (Rational Choice) — Olson, Klandermans, Snow
3.1 Mancur Olson — The Logic of Collective Action
- Free-rider problem: individuals can benefit from public goods without contributing → under-provision of action.
- Selective incentives (material/solidary/purposive) and small-group monitoring can solve it.
3.2 Klandermans — Motivation, Identity & Networks
- Participation = instrumental (efficacy, costs/benefits) + identity (value congruence) + social embeddedness (networks).
3.3 Snow & Benford — Framing Processes
- Diagnostic framing: what is wrong and who is to blame.
- Prognostic framing: proposed solutions.
- Motivational framing: calls-to-action, moral shocks.
- Frame alignment (bridging, amplification, extension, transformation) links movements with audiences.
Flow — Why People Join
Selective Incentives
Identity Fit
Network Recruitment
Framing Resonance
Participation
| Lens | Explains | Limitation | Combine With |
|---|---|---|---|
| Olson | Free-riding & incentives | Thin on culture/identity | Melucci (identity), Snow (frames) |
| Klandermans | Motivations & networks | Needs macro context | PPT (opportunities), RM (resources) |
| Snow–Benford | Meaning construction | Success depends on media/politics | Habermas (public sphere), Tilly (repertoires) |
4) Revolution Theories — Marx, Lenin, Skocpol, Goldstone
4.1 Marx & Lenin
- Marx: structural contradictions in capitalism → class struggle → revolutionary rupture.
- Lenin: vanguard party, dual power, seizing state; emphasizes leadership & organization.
4.2 Theda Skocpol — Structuralist Theory
- Social Revolutions occur when state breakdown (fiscal/military crisis) meets peasant insurgency under elite divisions.
- Focus on state autonomy/capacity and international pressures.
4.3 Jack Goldstone — Demographic-Structural Theory
- Population growth → elite overproduction + state fiscal strain → instability → revolutionary situations.
| Approach | Trigger/Mechanism | Strength | Limitation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Marx/Lenin | Class conflict; vanguard leadership | Links economy–politics–organization | Understates state autonomy & global pressures |
| Skocpol | State breakdown + peasant revolt | Shows centrality of state capacity | Downplays ideology/agency |
| Goldstone | Demographic & fiscal cycles | Long-run structural explanation | May be probabilistic, not deterministic |
5) Indian Social Movements — Typologies, Mechanisms & Illustrations
Use multiple lenses: grievances (Gurr), organization (RM), opportunities (PPT), identity (NSM), frames (Snow), and institutional venues (courts, media, elections).
5.1 Types & Repertoires
| Type | Core Issues | Repertoires | Conceptual Lens |
|---|---|---|---|
| Peasant/Agrarian | Land, tenancy, MSP, debt | Marches, sit-ins, negotiations | Marx/RM/PPT |
| Workers/Informal | Wages, security, rights | Strikes, unionization, PIL | RM; Olson incentives |
| Dalit & Social Justice | Dignity, anti-discrimination, representation | Mass mobilization, legal action | NSM (identity); Frames |
| Women/Feminist | Safety, representation, labour & care | Campaigns, legal reforms | NSM; Habermas (public sphere) |
| Environmental/Tribal | Displacement, forests, livelihood, ecology | Satyagraha, litigation, media | NSM; PPT (venue shifts) |
| Urban/Civil Rights | Transparency, anti-corruption, services | RTI networks, social audits | PPT + RM |
5.2 Movement Ecology — From Local to National
Flow — Scaling Up Movements
Local Grievances
Frames & Allies
NGOs, professionals
NGOs, professionals
Legal & Media Venues
PIL, reports
PIL, reports
Coalitions
national networks
national networks
Policy Reforms
laws, schemes
laws, schemes
UPSC writing cue: For any Indian movement, structure your answer as: grievance → organization/resources → opportunities/allies → frames/public sphere → repertoires → outcomes, citing at least two theorists at each step.
6) UPSC Answer Toolkit
| Question Type | Answer Spine | Must-Cite Theorists | One-line Hooks |
|---|---|---|---|
| Why do movements arise? | Grievance (Gurr/Davies) + Organization (RM) + POS (McAdam/Tilly) + Frames (Snow) | Gurr, McCarthy–Zald, McAdam, Snow | “Grievance is common; capacity & openings vary.” |
| Why do some succeed? | Resources + Allies + Favorable POS + Resonant frames + Low repression | Jenkins, Tilly, Habermas | “WUNC + allies convert voice to policy.” |
| NSM vs Old | Identity/culture/networks vs class/redistribution/org | Touraine, Melucci, Offe | “From wages to ways of life.” |
| Collective action puzzle | Free-rider solved by selective incentives + identity + networks | Olson, Klandermans, Snow | “Joiners are made by meaning + incentives.” |
| Revolution | State breakdown + peasant/urban coalitions + elite splits + international context | Skocpol, Goldstone, Marx/Lenin | “When states fail, contenders prevail.” |
Final Summary & Conclusion (Blocks 1 + 2)
- Foundations (Block 1): Marx (class conflict), Weber (charisma → routinization), Durkheim (collective effervescence), Smelser/Gurr/Davies (grievance & strain), and RM (organization/resources).
- Advanced Lenses (Block 2): PPT (opportunities), NSM (identity & culture), rational-choice & framing (incentives + meaning), and revolutions (state breakdown & demographics).
- Integration for UPSC: Always braid grievances + resources + opportunities + frames + repertoires + outcomes, adding Indian illustrations and noting state responses (tolerance/repression).
- Key payoffs: Use WUNC to assess strength; frame resonance for mass appeal; selective incentives to solve free-riding; POS to time escalation; and NSM to explain identity-centric politics.
