500 Most Probable Topics- List 11

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1. Changpa Tribe:

Climate activist Sonam Wangchuk and Leh Apex Body (LAB) decided to call off the Pashmina border march aimed at highlighting the plight of the Changpa nomadic tribes.

The Changpa, or Champa, are semi-nomadic people found mainly in the Changtang plateau of southeastern Ladakh. They share linguistic and cultural affinities with Tibetans.
All Changpa families profess Tibetan Buddhism as their religion. They are high-altitude pastoralists, raising mainly yaks and goats.
They can be identified by their conical yak-skin tents called reboo.

2. Agnibaan SubOrbital Technological Demonstrator (SOrTeD):

Single-stage launch vehicle with Agnilet engine.
Innovation: World’s first single-piece 3D printed semi-cryogenic rocket engine.
Launch Site: India’s first private launchpad, ALP-01, at ISRO’s Sriharikota spaceport.
Engine Features:
- Agnilet: India’s first semi-cryogenic engine using subcooled liquid oxygen and kerosene.
- Can lift a 100-kg payload up to 700 km.
- Total lift mass capability of 14,000 kg.
- Accessible to low- and high-inclination orbits.
- Features first-ever Ethernet-based avionics and in-house developed autopilot software.
- Fully mobile with launch pedestal named ‘Dhanush’ for compatibility across multiple launch ports.
Organizational Background:
- AgniKul Cosmos: Incubated at IIT Madras, based in Chennai.
- First to sign an agreement under the IN-SPACe initiative with ISRO in December 2020.
- Inaugurated India’s first private launchpad and mission control centre at Satish Dhawan Space Centre in 2022.

3. Green Credit Programme

Green Credit Programme (GCP): Incentivizes environmentally conscious practices via a market-based mechanism.
Trading: Green credits can be traded on a domestic platform.
Eligible Actions:
- Tree plantation, water management, sustainable agriculture.
- Waste management, air pollution reduction.
- Mangrove conservation, ecomark label development.
- Sustainable building and infrastructure.
Participants: Individuals, industries, FPOs, ULBs, gram panchayats, private sector.
Scheme Operations:
- Entities finance afforestation in degraded forests and wastelands.
- Actual planting done by State forest departments.
Initial Focus: Water conservation and afforestation.
Credit System:
- Post two years of planting and evaluation by ICFRE, each tree worth one green credit.
Green Credit Registry: Developed by ICFRE for registration, buying, and selling of credits.

4. Well Known Trademarks

Well-known Trademark Protection: Under the Trade Marks Act, 1999, well-known trademarks are protected from misuse and similar trademark registrations.
Protection Scope: Prevents registration or use of identical or similar marks across different goods and services.
Commercial Benefits: Can be licensed or franchised, providing additional revenue streams.
Criteria for Recognition:
- Recognition and knowledge of the trademark.
- Use duration, extent, and geographical coverage.
- Promotion duration, extent, and geographical coverage.
- Inherent or acquired distinctiveness.
- Registration extent in India and abroad.

5. Rakhigarhi

Rakhigarhi is an archaeological site in Hisar district, Haryana, near the Ghaggar-Hakra river plain.
One of the oldest and largest cities of the Indus Valley or Harappan Civilization, dating back to around 6500 BCE.
It is among the five largest Harappan townships, alongside Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Ganveriwala in Pakistan, and Dholavira in India.
Archaeological Findings:
- Site includes seven archaeological mounds.
- Evidence from the Early to Mature Harappan periods; abandoned in the Late Harappan period.
- Excavations uncovered a planned township with mud-brick and burnt-brick houses and a sophisticated drainage system.
- Ceramic industry with red ware including various vessels like dish-on-stand, vase, jar, bowl, beaker, perforated jar, goblet, and handis.
- Ritual artifacts like animal sacrificial pits, triangular and circular fire altars.
- A cylindrical seal featuring Harappan script and an alligator symbol.
- Excavated extended burials from possibly medieval times.

6. Washington Treaty

Washington Treaty/North Atlantic Treaty: Basis for NATO, signed in 1949 in Washington D.C. by 12 founding members.
Legal Foundation: Derives authority from Article 51 of the United Nations Charter, supporting the right to individual or collective defense.
Core Principle: Collective defense as stated in Article 5, obligating members to mutual protection and promoting solidarity.
Structure and Flexibility: Consists of 14 articles, offering flexibility to adapt to varied security conditions without modifications.
Implementation: Allows each ally to apply the treaty according to its own capabilities and circumstances.

7. World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA)

India has emerged as the country with the highest percentage of doping offenders, according to the 2022 testing figures released by the WADA.

World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) established in 1999, international independent agency promoting doping-free sports.
Governed and funded equally by sports movements and governments worldwide.
Primary role: develop, harmonize, coordinate anti-doping rules and policies across all sports and countries.
Key activities: scientific research, education, development of anti-doping capacities, monitoring of the World Anti-Doping Code.
Formed following doping scandals in cycling during summer 1998.
International Olympic Committee (IOC) convened the First World Conference on Doping in Sport in Lausanne, Switzerland, on February 2-4, 1999.
Conference led to the Lausanne Declaration on Doping in Sport, establishing WADA.
WADA operational for the Games of the XXVII Olympiad in Sydney 2000.
Structured as a Swiss private law, not-for-profit foundation, based in Lausanne, headquarters in Montreal, Canada.

8. Project Akashteer:

Its an initiative to automate and digitize air defense control and reporting processes.
Aims to enhance situational awareness and control, ensuring safety of friendly aircraft and engagement of hostile ones in contested airspace.
Will monitor low-level airspace over battle areas of the Indian Army and effectively control Ground Based Air Defence Weapon Systems.

9. Kumittipathi Rock Paintings:

These paintings believed to be around 3,000 years old and are among the important rock arts in the Kongu region.
Theme: The paintings depict an elephant, ther (chariot, some say it is a peacock) and the lives of early dwellers of the region.
There are small pits and holes in the cave, which are believed to have been used to store water and other belongings.
Material used: They used an inorganic white pigment, along with natural gum to paint the figures.
While most of the rock painting sites in Tamil Nadu are found on rock shelters, those at Kumittipathi are drawn inside a cave.

10. Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs)

The Uttarakhand government has constituted two teams of experts to evaluate the risk posed by Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs).

Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs): disasters caused by sudden water discharge from glacial lakes.
Glacial lakes: bodies of water formed by melting glaciers, filling depressions left by retreating glaciers.
Risk increases as glaciers recede, enlarging lakes dammed by unstable ice or loose sediment.
GLOFs occur when lake boundaries break, releasing water downstream, potentially causing flooding.
Causes of GLOFs: glacier calving, avalanches, landslides impacting lake stability.
Uttarakhand scenario: 13 glacial lakes at risk of GLOF, including five highly sensitive lakes in the ‘A’ category: Vasudhara Tal, Maban Lake, Pyungru Lake, and two unclassified lakes in Darma and Kuthi Yangti Valleys.

11. Microplastics

Microplastics: tiny plastic particles less than five millimeters in diameter, from product development or breakdown of larger plastics.
Different from macroplastics like bottles and bags.
Found in products such as cosmetics, synthetic clothing, plastic bags, and bottles.
Composed of carbon and hydrogen in polymer chains, often containing chemicals like phthalates, PBDEs, and TBBPA.
Categories:
- Primary microplastics: designed for commercial use (e.g., cosmetics, microfibers from textiles).
- Secondary microplastics: result from breakdown of larger plastics due to environmental factors like sun’s radiation and ocean waves.
Environmental impacts:
- Persistent in the environment, do not degrade into harmless molecules.
- Accumulate in oceans, bind with harmful chemicals, ingested by marine life.
- Standard water treatments do not fully remove microplastics.
- Contribute to air pollution as particulate matter in dust and airborne fibers.

12. Paira cropping system

A unique conservation agricultural practice called Paira cropping system has lost its importance in recent years due to climate change.

Paira cropping system: relay method practiced in Bihar, Eastern Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha.
Involves broadcasting seeds of lentil, lathyrus, urdbean, mungbean into standing rice crops about two weeks before rice harvest.
No agronomic interventions like tillage, weeding, irrigation, or fertilization; rice variety influences pulse productivity.
Advantages:
- Utilizes soil moisture available at rice harvest, preventing moisture loss.
- Experimental evidence shows higher lentil yields compared to post-harvest tillage methods.
- Enhances resource use efficiency for sustainable crop intensification and increased land productivity.
Relay cropping method: involves seeding one crop into another before the second crop is harvested.
- Addresses issues like inefficient resource use, sowing time conflicts, fertilizer application, and soil degradation.

13. Agni Prime Missile

Agni-Prime Missile: new-generation, nuclear-capable variant of the Agni missile series.
Features: two-stage, canisterised, with a range of 1,000 to 2,000 km.
Lighter by at least 50% compared to Agni 3, incorporates new guidance and propulsion systems.
Mobility: transportable by road and rail, allows for extended storage.
Quick deployment capabilities, uses a cold launch mechanism, and capable of salvo firing.

14. Indian Laurel Tree

In Alluri Sitharama Raju district of Andhra Pradesh, a surprising natural phenomenon involving an Indian laurel tree (Ficus microcarpa) was recorded and shared widely on social media. Here are the key details:

Location: The incident occurred in Papikonda National Park.
Discovery: Forest department officials, guided by knowledge from the Konda Reddi tribe, discovered that this particular tree species stores water within its bark, a crucial adaptation during the dry summer months.
Cultural Insight: The Konda Reddi tribe, recognized for their deep understanding of local flora, shared this knowledge with the forest officials.

Indian Laurel

Scientific Name: Terminalia elliptica (syn. T. tomentosa)
Nicknamed “crocodile bark” for its bark pattern.
Habitat: Found in dry and moist deciduous forests in southern India up to an elevation of 1000 meters.
Distribution: Native to southern and Southeast Asia, including India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam.
Applications:
- Wood: Used for furniture, cabinetwork, joinery, paneling, specialty items, boat-building, railroad cross-ties (treated), decorative veneers, and musical instruments (e.g., guitar fretboards).
- Leaves: Feed Antheraea paphia silkworms, producing tussar silk, a commercially valuable wild silk.
- Bark: Medicinally used against diarrhea; source of oxalic acid.
- Bark and Fruit: Provide pyrogallol and catechol, used to dye and tan leather.

15. Carbon Fibre

Objective: India aims to produce carbon fibre to substitute metal, addressing potential impacts from the European Union’s proposed carbon tax on steel and metal products.

Composition: Made of thin, strong crystalline filaments of carbon, where carbon atoms are bonded in long chains.
Properties:
- High stiffness and stiffness-to-weight ratio.
- High tensile strength and strength-to-weight ratio.
- High-temperature tolerance with specific resins.
- Low thermal expansion.
- High chemical resistance.
Structural Use: Fibers are stiff, strong, and light, making them ideal for structural materials in various manufacturing processes.
Current Status: India currently does not produce carbon fibre, relying entirely on imports from countries like the US, France, Japan, and Germany.

Applications:

Used in fighter plane noses, civilian airplanes, drone frames, car chassis, and fire-resistant building materials.
Critical in technical textiles, noted for its strength and lightweight properties.

16. Lumpy Skin Disease (LSD):

Infectious viral disease in cattle caused by the lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV), part of the capripoxvirus genus within the poxviridae family.
Related to other poxviruses like smallpox and monkeypox.
LSDV is not zoonotic; does not spread to humans.
LSD affects the lymph nodes of the infected animal, causing the nodes to enlarge and appear like lumps on the skin, which is where it derives its name from.
It is a highly host-specific disease. It primarily affects cows and to a lesser extent, buffalo. Morbidity rate is higher in cattle than buffalo.

Transmission:

Spread by blood-feeding insects, including certain flies, mosquitoes, and ticks.
Virus shed in oral and nasal secretions of infected animals can contaminate feeding and water troughs.

Through direct contact with vectors or indirectly through contaminated fodder and water.

17. Sixth Schedule of the Indian Constitution:

Purpose: Grants autonomous powers for administration of tribal areas in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram as per Articles 244(2) and 275(1).
Administration Structure:
- Tribal areas are administered as Autonomous Districts.
- Governor can divide these districts into Autonomous Regions if multiple Scheduled Tribes are present.
- Governor has powers to organize, reorganize, adjust boundaries, or rename autonomous districts.
District and Regional Councils:
- Each autonomous district has a District Council with up to 30 members; up to four nominated by the Governor, others elected via adult suffrage.
- Regional Councils for each autonomous region.
- Governor consults with tribal councils to decide council rules.
Powers of Councils:
- Legislate on land use, non-reserve forest management, water resources for agriculture, village/town councils, inheritance, and social customs.
- Regulate money-lending and trading by non-Scheduled Tribe individuals within the district.
- Collect land revenue, impose taxes on various activities and professions.
- License and lease for mineral extraction.
- Manage infrastructure like schools, markets, roads, and health care facilities.
- Legislation needs the Governor’s assent.
Jurisdiction and Legal Authority:
- Councils can establish Village and District Council Courts for trials involving Scheduled Tribes.
- High Courts retain jurisdiction over specified cases.
- Council Courts cannot handle cases with severe penalties (death or imprisonment over five years).
Legislative Exemptions:
- Acts of Parliament or state laws may not apply, or apply with modifications, in autonomous districts and regions.
Governor’s Oversight:
- Can commission investigations into issues within autonomous districts or regions

18. Bridge Fuel:

Definition: A transitional fuel that minimizes environmental impact while society shifts from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources.
Purpose: To replace current fossil-fuel-dependent energy systems during the transition to a zero-emission, renewable energy economy.
Common Example: Natural gas is often cited as a bridge fuel due to its lower greenhouse gas emissions during combustion compared to other fossil fuels.
Additional Criteria:
- Enhances national energy independence.
- Reduces costs associated with pollution.

19. Organic Electrochemical Transistor:

It is an emerging class of transistor based on organic superconducting materials known for their ability to modulate electrical current in response to small changes in the voltage applied to their gate electrode.
It is a device capable of simultaneously controlling the flow of electronic and ionic currents.
Advantages: They have various notable advantages, including promising amplification and sensing capabilities, low power consumption, low driving voltages and a versatile structure.
Applications: They can be used to create biosensors, wearable devices and neuromorphic systems.

20. Caracal

Caracal or siya gosh (“black ear” in Persian), elusive, nocturnal, excels at catching birds in flight.
Uses abandoned porcupine burrows, rock crevices for maternal dens; found in dense vegetation with young.
Habitats in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh: Kutch, Malwa Plateau, Aravalli Range, Bundelkhand.
Distributed across Africa, the Middle East, Central and South Asia.
Lives in woodlands, savannahs, scrub forests.
Threats: large-scale hunting, illegal trading, habitat loss.
Conservation status: Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule I.

21. Global Report on Food Crises (GRFC) 2024:

Released annually by the Food Security Information Network (FSIN) and the Global Network Against Food Crises.
Key Findings of GRFC 2024:
- Analyzed 1.3 billion people across 59 countries.
- Nearly 282 million faced high levels of acute food insecurity in 2023.
- 2023 marked the fifth consecutive year of increase in acute food insecurity.
Main Drivers of Food Crises:
- Conflicts, extreme weather, and economic shocks.
- Conflicts were the leading cause in 20 countries, affecting 135 million people.
- Notably severe crises in Gaza Strip and Sudan; Gaza Strip noted as the area with the most severe crisis in eight years of reporting.
- Sudan: Nearly a third of its population needs emergency food aid.
- Weather extremes drove crises in 18 countries, affecting over 72 million people.
Countries Most Affected in 2023:
- Democratic Republic of the Congo, Nigeria, Sudan, Afghanistan, Ethiopia, Yemen, Syria, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Myanmar.
Improvements:
- Situations improved in 17 countries, including the Democratic Republic of Congo and Ukraine.

22. Kalesar Wildlife Sanctuary

The Supreme Court recently stayed the construction of four proposed dams inside Kalesar Wildlife Sanctuary.

Kalesar Wildlife Sanctuary:

It is situated in the Shivalik foothills of the Himalayas in Haryana. The Yamuna River runs to its east. It derives its name from the Kalesar Forest, which is a part of the reserve.
Topography:
- It varies from plains to hills, interspersed with narrow valleys locally called ‘khols’ between the hills.
- These valleys house seasonal rivulets locally called ‘soats’ which remain dry for most of the year.

23. Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI):

A global partnership involving national governments, UN agencies, multilateral banks, private sector, and academic institutions.
Launch: Initiated at the United Nations Climate Action Summit, 2019, New York.
Objective: Enhances resilience of infrastructure against climate and disaster risks to support sustainable development.
Role: Serves as a multi-stakeholder platform for generating and exchanging knowledge on disaster resilience of infrastructure.
Activities: Helps countries improve their infrastructure resilience through better capacity building, standards, regulations, and practices, tailored to their specific risk contexts and economic needs.
Membership: Includes 39 countries, 7 international organizations, and 2 private sector entities.
- Notable international members: Asian Development Bank (ADB), World Bank Group, UNDP, UNDRR, European Union, European Investment Bank, ARISE.
Secretariat: Based in New Delhi, India.

24. Article 244(A):

It allows for creation of an ‘autonomous state’ within Assam in certain tribal areas. This region could include certain tribal areas like Karbi Anglong.
- This provision was inserted by the Constitution (Twenty-second Amendment) Act, 1969.
Such autonomous state created would have its own Legislature or Council of Ministers or both. It accounts for more autonomous powers to tribal areas, among these the most important power is the control over law and order.
In Autonomous Councils under the Sixth Schedule, they do not have jurisdiction of law and order.

25. KABIL INDIA

Khanij Bidesh India Limited (KABIL), is a Joint Venture Company among the three Government Enterprises: National Aluminium Company Ltd. (NALCO), Hindustan Copper Limited (HCL) and Mineral Exploration & Consultancy Limited (MECL), in the ratio of 40:30:30, under the aegis of Ministry of Mines, Government of India, formed to ensure supply side assurance of critical and strategic minerals and mineral security of the nation. KABIL was Incorporated on 08.08.2019 under the companies Act 2013.

Mandate of KABIL is to identify, explore, acquire, develop, mine, process, procure strategic minerals outside India for suppling primarily to India, to meet domestic requirements due to its non or meagre availability in the country and giving a big push to Make in India.

26. Crystal Maze 2

The Indian Air Force (IAF) has successfully carried out a test firing of the Crystal Maze 2 missile.

Also referred to as ROCKS, it is an air-launched medium-rangeballistic missile. It is of Israeli origin.
It is designed to target high-value stationary and relocatable assets, such as long-range radars and air defense systems, of potential adversaries.

27. Pink Hydrogen:

It is generated through electrolysis powered by nuclear energy. It can also be referred to as purple hydrogen or red hydrogen.
In addition, the very high temperatures from nuclear reactors could be used in other hydrogen productions by producing steam for more efficient electrolysis or fossil gas-based steam methane reforming.
Nuclear power offers significant advantages for pink hydrogen production, including reducing production costs and emissions, making it a sustainable and more cost-effective alternative to conventional methods.
Applications: Pink hydrogen is a promising replacement for fossil fuels in the cement industry, steel industry, aviation and heavy transportation, as it can be used as a feedstock and energy source with no greenhouse gas emissions.

28. State of the Climate in Asia 2023 Report

State of the Climate in Asia 2023 Report published by the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO).
Highlights:
- Over nine million people affected by 79 extreme climate disasters in Asia in 2023.
- Asia and the Pacific noted as the most disaster-impacted region last year.
- Record highs in atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide in 2022.
- Oceans absorbed about 25% of annual man-made CO2 between 1960 and 2021; ocean heat content in 2023 was the highest on record.
- Slightly above-average tropical cyclone activity in the North Indian Ocean.
- Asia experienced its second-highest mean temperature on record in 2023; record warm years in Japan and Kazakhstan.
- Accelerating glacial retreat, particularly in the East Himalayas and Tian Shan mountains due to high temperatures and dry conditions.
About WMO:
- Specialized agency of the United Nations focused on Earth’s atmosphere, ocean interactions, and water resources.
- Originated from the International Meteorological Organization founded in 1873; established as WMO in 1950.
- Headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland.
- Membership includes 187 countries.

29. Golden trevally Fish

Researchers of the ICAR-Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI) have succeeded in captive breeding of golden trevally (Gnathanodon speciosus).

It is a high value marine fish also known as golden king fish. It is a reef-associated fish and lives in the company of larger fishes like skates, sharks, groupers etc.
It is an ideal candidate species for mariculture due to its faster growth rates, good meat quality and huge market demand for both consumption and ornamental purposes.
In India, the fish landing observations show that the golden trevally are landed predominantly at reef area fishing grounds in Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Kerala, Karnataka and Gujarat.

30. Azad Hind government

Formation: 1943, October 21 by Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose in Singapore.
Titles: Bose was Head of State, Prime Minister, and Minister of War.
Key Figures:
- Captain Lakshmi led the women’s organization.
- S.A. Ayer managed the publicity wing.
- Revolutionary leader Ras Behari Bose was the supreme adviser.
Support: Backed by Axis powers (Imperial Japan, Nazi Germany, Italian Social Republic).
Authority: Claimed control over Indian civilian and military personnel in Southeast Asian British colonies; aimed for authority over Indian territories under Japanese advancement during WWII.
Impact:
- Allowed Bose to negotiate with Japanese as equals.
- Mobilized Indians in East Asia to support and join the Indian National Army (INA).
- Attracted ex-prisoners and civilian volunteers from Malaya and Burma.
Governance:
- Established in Japanese-occupied Andaman and Nicobar Islands, reverted to British control in 1945.
- Introduced its own bank, currency, civil code, and postage stamps.
Military Innovations:
- Created the Rani Jhansi Regiment, the first women’s regiment of the INA, promoting equal opportunities for women in the armed forces.

31. Maldives and Lakshadweep Islands

Click here to read on them

32. Styles of Temple Architecture

Click here to read on it

33. Tiger Reserves of North East India

Kaziranaga TR- Assam
Manas TR- Assam
Orang TR- Assam
Nameri TR – Assam
Pakhui TR- Arunachal Pradesh
Namdapha TR – Arunachal Pradesh
Dampa TR- Mizoram

34. Ramsar Convention on Wetlands

The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, especially as Waterfowl Habitats
Aim– Conservation and Sustainable utilisation of Wetlands
Ramsar – Town in Iran
Signed in 1971
Came into effect in 1975
February 2 – World Wetland Day
Maximum number of Ramsar sites – UK
Largest area under Ramsar Sites – Bolivia
Ramsar secretariat – IUCN- The World Conservation Union in Gland, Switzerland
Its an intergovernmental treaty and is not a part of UN.
Concept of “ Wise use of Wetlands” is related to Ramsar Convention.
Its not legally binding.
No of sites in India – 80

The Montreux Record

The Montreux Record is a register of wetland sites on the List of Wetlands of International Importance where changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring, or are likely to occur as a result of technological developments, pollution or other human interference. It is maintained as part of the Ramsar List.

Latest Ramsar Sites in India: 35-39

35. Magadi Kere Conservation Area

Recently added to Ramsar Sites List

Site Overview: A human-made wetland in Gadag district, initially built to store monsoon rainwater for irrigation. Over time, the water became too alkaline for irrigation purposes.
Ecological Importance:
- Now serves as a stable habitat for over 165 bird species.
- Declared a national conservation reserve and an Important Bird and Biodiversity Area (IBA).
Biodiversity:
- Hosts rare and threatened species such as the northern shoveler (Anas clypeata), garganey (Anas querquedula), and common pochard (Aythya ferina).
- One of southern India’s largest wintering grounds for the bar-headed goose (Anser indicus), with about 30,000 waterbirds, including 8,000 wintering individuals, regularly recorded.
- The globally endangered Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) also observed nearby.
Human Interaction:
- Local community activities include cattle grazing and fishing.

36. Karaivetti Bird Sanctuary- Ramsar Site

Location and Significance: One of the largest inland freshwater lakes in Tamil Nadu, serving as a crucial stopover and foraging ground for birds migrating along the Central Asian Flyway.
Biodiversity:
- Home to about 10,000 individuals from 14 colonial waterbird species nesting at the site.
- Gum Arabic tree (Acacia nilotica) provides roosting and nesting for threatened species such as the spotted eagle (Aquila clanga), tawny eagle (Aquila rapax), and Indian darter (Anhinga melanogaster).
- Notable for large congregations of waterbirds including the painted stork (Mycteria leucocephala) when water levels recede after January.
- Provides breeding habitat for the vulnerable Indian flap-shelled turtle (Lissemys punctata).
Water Management:
- Water levels maintained during the dry season (July to October) using water from Mettur Dam.
- Lake water used for irrigating approximately 4,000 hectares of surrounding farmland.
Conservation Challenges:
- Human-wildlife conflicts noted, especially concerning the vulnerable bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata).

37. Aghanishini Estuary

Location: The Site is an estuary where the Aghanashini River meets the Arabian Sea in Karnataka State.
Ecological Diversity: Features estuarine and shallow marine waters, rocky and pebble shores, intertidal mudflats, aquaculture ponds, and rice fields.
Biodiversity:
- Home to over 80 fish species, 115 bird species, and 45 types of mangroves and mangrove-associated species.
- Includes globally threatened species such as halavi guitarfish (Glaucostegus halavi), lesser adjutant (Leptoptilos javanicus), and Indian river tern (Sterna aurantia).
- Notable for supporting 55,000 individual birds and significant proportions of regional bird populations, including almost 10% of the black-headed ibis (Threskiornis melanocephalus).
Fish Population: Many fish species adapt to varying salinity; some are migratory, entering the estuary for spawning or during early life stages.
Human Interaction:
- Supports the livelihoods of over 6,000 households through fishing, agriculture, shrimp aquaculture, bivalve shell mining, and salt production.
- Traditional farming practices include growing a salt-tolerant rice variety known as “kagga”, a regional specialty.

38. Ankasamudra Bird Conservation Reserve

A human-made wetland created from monsoon run-off from the Tungabhadra River for irrigation in drought-prone areas.
Conservation Status: Declared a conservation reserve, primarily managed for bird protection.
Biodiversity:
- Hosts about 35,000 birds from 240 species, with 30 waterbird species breeding at the Site.
- Gum Arabic trees (Vachellia nilotica) provide crucial nesting, roosting, and breeding habitats for species such as the Indian cormorant (Phalacrocorax fuscicollis) and near-threatened painted stork (Mycteria leucocephala).
- At least 20% of the regional population of glossy ibis (Plegadis falcinellus) found here.
- Nine endemic fish species present, including three globally endangered: tiger loach (Botia striata), aruli barb (Dawkinsia arulius), and nukta (Schismatorhynchos nukta).
Environmental Threats:
- Invasive species like alligator weed (Alternanthera philoxeroides), shrub Prosopis juliflora, and African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) are impacting native fish and waterbird populations.
Management and Restoration: A plan was being prepared as of 2023 to address environmental threats and preserve the Site’s ecological balance.

39. Longwood Shola Reserve Forest

The Site is near Kothagiri, adjacent to the eastern slopes of the Nilgiri mountain range.
Habitat: Features intermittent freshwater marshes and streams within a shola forest—a tropical montane forest typical to southern India, interspersed with grasslands.
Significance: The only natural shola forest remaining near Kothagiri, noted for its high species endemism.
Biodiversity:
- Home to about 40 species of trees, four reptile species, 14 frog species, and 14 bird species endemic to the Western Ghats.
- Notable endemic and threatened plant species include Actinodaphne bourneae (Bourne’s beak-rush), Psychotria nilgiriensis, and Cinnamomum wightii (Wight’s cinnamon).
- Key conservation area for endangered and vulnerable species such as the black-chinned Nilgiri laughing thrush (Strophocincla cachinnans), Nilgiri blue robin (Myiomela major), and Nilgiri wood-pigeon (Columba elphinstonii).
Threats:
- Faced with encroachment, invasive species, and deforestation.
Conservation Efforts:
- A committee of local residents collaborates with Reserve officials to protect the Site and its biodiversity.

40. CAA Rules, 2024

Citizenship (Amendment) Rules, 2024 announced by Union Ministry of Home Affairs to implement the Citizenship (Amendment) Act (CAA), 2019.
CAA, 2019, enacted under Article 11 of the Constitution, allows for legislation on citizenship acquisition and termination.
CAA facilitates citizenship for certain migrants lacking valid travel documents.
Eligibility for CAA:
- Migrants must be Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Parsis, or Christians from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, or Pakistan.
- Entered India on or before December 31, 2014.
- Excludes tribal areas in Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Tripura under the Sixth Schedule, and “Inner Line” permit areas of Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, and Nagaland.
Benefits under CAA:
- Exemption from penalties under the Passport (Entry into India) Act, 1920, and the Foreigners Act, 1946.
- Reduction in naturalisation period from 11 years to 5 years for specified migrants.
Overseas Citizenship of India (OCI): Registration can be canceled on five specified grounds.

41. Trends in International Arms Transfers, 2023:

Report by the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute.

Exports:
- USA: Largest global arms exporter with a 42% share.
- France: Became the second-largest arms exporter, surpassing Russia.
Imports:
- India: Leading global arms importer, with a 4.7% increase in imports from 2014–18 to 2019–23.
- Russia: Main supplier to India, accounting for 36% of its imports.
- Ukraine: Became the largest European arms importer during 2019–23.

42. Reserve Bank – Integrated Ombudsman Scheme (RB-IOS), 2021

RB-IOS, 2021: Launched to integrate three previous RBI ombudsman schemes: Banking Ombudsman Scheme (2006), Ombudsman Scheme for Non-Banking Financial Companies (2018), and Ombudsman Scheme for Digital Transactions (2019).
Objective: Provides free redress for service deficiencies from entities regulated by RBI; follows ‘One Nation One Ombudsman’ approach.
Coverage: Includes all commercial banks, regional rural banks, urban co-operative banks with deposits over ₹50 crore, non-banking financial companies (excluding housing finance) with assets over ₹100 crore, all payment system participants, and credit information companies.

43. Geneva Package and Fishing Subsidies- WTO

WTO’s 13th Ministerial Conference ended without resolving issues on fisheries subsidies that contribute to over-fishing and over-capacity.
Geneva Package: Adopted at the 12th Ministerial Conference to limit harmful subsidies, which deplete global fish stocks. The agreement awaits approval by two-thirds of WTO members and is not yet in effect; India has not agreed to it.
Benefits of the Agreement: Aims to sustain marine fish stocks by restricting subsidies to illegal fishing, overfished stocks, and unregulated high seas fishing.
Special and Differential Treatment (S&DT): Provides a 2-year transition for Developing and Least Developed Countries after the agreement’s enactment.
India’s Demands: Advocates for responsibilities on nations historically providing large subsidies based on the polluter pay principle (PPP) and Common But Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR-RC); calls for a 25-year moratorium on subsidies by distant water fishing nations outside their EEZs; seeks exceptions for developing countries and small economies to continue subsidies in the fisheries sector.

44. Nutrients Based Subsidy

Why in the News: The Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers recently released guidelines for determining the reasonableness of Maximum Retail Prices (MRPs) for Phosphatic and Potassic (P&K) fertilizers, under the Nutrient Based Subsidy (NBS) policy.
Guidelines:
- Effective Date: These guidelines are retroactively effective from April 1, 2023.
- Profit Control: They establish different allowable profit percentages for P&K fertilizer companies based on their categories.
- Evaluation Criteria: The reasonableness of MRPs will be assessed based on the total cost of sales, excluding GST.
- Scope: Applicable to all fertilizer grades that receive subsidies under the NBS scheme.
- Self-assessment and Refund: Companies are required to self-assess and refund any profits deemed unreasonable to the Department of Fertilizers.
Nutrient Based Subsidy (NBS) Policy:
- Purpose: Initiated in 2010 and approved through FY 2025-26, the NBS policy aims to make fertilizers affordable to farmers by subsidizing them.
- Regulatory Framework: The policy is structured under the Fertilizer (Control) Order, 1985, which is part of the Essential Commodities Act, 1955.
- Eligible Fertilizer Grades: NBS applies to 25 specific grades of P&K fertilizers, such as Di Ammonium Phosphate (DAP), Muriate of Potash (MOP), Mono Ammonium Phosphate (MAP), and Triple Super Phosphate (TSP).
- Pricing Mechanism: Unlike urea, where the government fixes the MRP, the MRPs for NBS fertilizers are market-driven and set by the manufacturers themselves. However, the subsidy for urea is based on dispatched quantities, whereas for NBS fertilizers, it is based on the quantities sold.

45. Terai Arc Landscape (TAL) recognized as the United Nation World Restoration Flagship

United Nation World Restoration Flagship in News: Terai Arc Landscape (TAL) has been recognized as a United Nation World Restoration Flagship.
World Restoration Flagship:
- Initiation: Commenced in 2022, part of the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (2021-2030).
- Leadership: Led by the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) and the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), along with other partner organizations.
- Objective: Aims to prevent, halt, and reverse the degradation of ecosystems globally.
- Selection Criteria: Based on geographic distribution and probability of success.
- Monitoring: Progress monitored through the Framework for Ecosystem Restoration Monitoring.
- Recognition and Support: Recognized initiatives, like the Terai Arc Landscape and Namami Gange initiative, become eligible for technical and financial support from the UN.

Terai Arc Landscape (TAL):

Launch: Initiated in 2001, recognized as a trans-boundary biodiversity hotspot.
Wildlife: Critical habitat for endangered species like tigers, rhinos, and elephants.
Conservation Goals: Focuses on conserving the ecosystems of the Terai regions and Churia hills.
Geographical Extent: Spans over 900 km from the Bagmati River in Nepal (east) to the Yamuna River in India (west).
Protected Areas: Includes several protected regions such as Corbett Tiger Reserve and Rajaji National Park.

46. UREA GOLD

Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA) approved launch of Urea Gold.

Product: Urea Gold, a Sulphur-Coated Urea (SCU).
Nature: Non-organic, slow-release fertilizer.
Preparation: Coating preheated urea granules with molten sulphur.
Benefits:
- Ensures gradual nitrogen release.
- Extends effectiveness, keeping plants greener longer.
- Increases efficiency, reduces application frequency, and improves soil health.
Impact:
- ICAR study: Reduces urea use by 25%.
- Supports government initiatives for Environmentally Friendly Fertilizers (EFFs).
EFF Features:
- Reduces environmental pollution from nutrient loss.
- Includes organic options like Biocompost and Vermicompost.
Indian Initiatives:
- PM PRANAM Scheme.
- Development of Nano Urea and Neem Coated Urea.
- Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samruddhi Kendras (PMKSK) and GOBARdhan promote and facilitate EFF use.

47. Female Migration Mapping

Female Migration Rate: 47.9% for females, significantly higher than 10.7% for males.
Overall Migration Rate: Estimated at 28.9% for India.
Migration Patterns:
- Females dominate intra-state migration.
- Males lead in inter-state migration.
Marriage Influence:
- Accounts for 33% of intra-state migration.
- Specifically, 51% of female intra-state migrants.
Migration Streams:
- Males predominantly migrate in rural-to-urban interstate streams.
- Females more common in rural-to-rural streams.

48. Mitakshara Law

Mitakshara Law: One of two major Hindu law schools, governs property succession.
Origin: Based on Vijnaneswara’s commentary on Yajnavalkya Smriti, 12th century.
Coparcenary Concept: Property jointly held by all male family members; rights are equal but undivided.
Women’s Rights:
- Initially, women could not be coparceners.
- Changed by the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act 2005, allowing women equal status.
Prevalence: Dominant in India except for eastern regions where Dayabhaga School prevails.
Dayabhaga School:
- Based on Jimutuvahana’s commentary on Yagnavalkya Smriti.
- Inheritance tied to spiritual benefits from ancestral offerings.
- Exclusive to Bengal and parts of Assam.

49. HOLISTIC PROGRESS CARD (HPC)

Why in the News? PARAKH (Performance Assessment, Review and Analysis of Knowledge for Holistic Development) a standard setting body under NCERT, has devised the HPC for the foundational stage (Classes 1 and 2), preparatory stage (Classes 3 to 5) and middle stage (Classes 6 to 8).

HPC

HPC is a 360-degree, multidimensional report of progress, detailing the uniqueness of each learner in the cognitive, affective, socio-emotional, and psychomotor domains.
It is in line with the recommendations of the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020.

PARAKH

PARAKH is the National Assessment Centre.
It was set up in NCERT as an independent constituent unit in 2023.
Objective: Setting norms, standards, guidelines and implementing activities related to student assessment along with other tasks as mandated by NEP, 2020.

50. Human Development Report

Human Development Reports (HDRs)have been released since 1990 and have explored different themes through the human development approach.
The reports are produced by the Human Development Report Office for the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).

Human Development Index:

HDI is a composite index that measures average achievement in human development taking into account three indicators:

- - Life expectancy at birth (Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 3),
  - Expected years of schooling (SDG 4.3),
    - Mean years of schooling (SDG 4.4)
  - Gross national income (GNI) (SDG 8.5).

According to the 2023-24 Human Development Report (HDR), titled ‘Breaking the Gridlock: Reimagining Cooperation in a Polarised World,’ India ranks 134 on the global Human Development Index (HDI). Switzerland has been ranked number one.
The report has been released by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).

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