IASNOVA
This summary is of complete book keeping in mind the demand of prelims exam .
The skill of weaving carpets and superior forms of shawls was brought to Kashmir by the pre-Moghul king, Zain-ul-Abedin. Persian artisans enriched carpet-weaving and shawl-making according to the needs of Indian courts. On the other hand, the static nature of the Hindu caste system has kept many craft forms alive merely because the artisan had no opportunity to move away to other professions as social boundaries were rigid and hierarchical. The courts of various maharajas encouraged excellence in many courtly crafts connected with the making of armoury or jewellery. Temples kept alive the finest metal work, stone carving, mural painting and even textile weaving right across India, and particularly in South India. Here the Kammalars who claimed descent from the five divine artisan sons of Lord Visvakarma, followed the Shilpa Shastras, the technical tomes on the practice of art in Sanskrit. The high priests among the artisans follow these rules even today when creating large vessels out of metal alloys for temple use.
In Jammu and Kashmir, the Gujjars and Bakarwals are mountain tribes who spend their lives crossing over from one side of the mountains to the other in search of grass for their sheep and goats. Their jewellery, blankets, embroidered caps and tunics, saddle bags and sundry animal accessories are similar to the artifacts of the people of Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq and the smaller countries of Central Asia. The robust manner of the people and the heavily ornamented women folk reflect as far down in India as Saurashtra and the desert regions of Kutch in Gujarat, and Rajasthan. Mirror work in embroidery stems from the use of mica from the desert sands in the garments of those who liked heavy and shining ornamentation.
The various tribes inhabiting the north-east of India live among the rich bamboo forests where the finest quality of skill in the weaving of bamboo, cane and other wild grasses can be seen.
Even today, the prajapati or kumhar (potter), the vankar or bunkar (weaver), the ashari (carpenter) and all the other identified and categorised artisans are divided and recognised by the caste groupings whether they continue to practise their skill or not.
Hand Modelling
Modelling is a process used with materials like clay, wax or plaster. Clay modelling enables the artist to work from the inside core to the outside. The artist begins with a well mixed lump of clay and starts working with his fingers to give it shape and form. Clay can be rolled, coiled, pinched and attached to the main form. This technique has several advantages that the artist can use to create a sculpture. He can add legs and arms to the figure by wetting a smaller piece of clay, rolling it and attaching it to the main body.
What Is Terracotta?
Once the clay object is made, it can be dried in the sun and fired in a local kiln made of cowdung and wood. This process transforms the clay into terracotta. Clay can be fired at different temperatures from 700–1400 degrees C. The intensity of heat and the type of firing gives the terracotta its colour and hue that range from dark brown to lively reds. Once fired, the terracotta becomes insoluble, un-plastic and durable. On firing, the clay loses its chemically combined water, and becomes hard and almost imperishable. That is why 5000-year-old seals from the Harappan Civilisation still exist.
Stone Sculpture through the Ages
At Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh, there are a number of rock shelters of the Stone Age period. Early inhabitants lived in natural caves and created fine tools and flints of agate and other natural stones in the area. These tiny flints and well-carved stone implements are the first examples in the long story of Indian sculpture
At Ellora, in Maharashtra, there are Hindu, Buddhist and Jain rock-cut shrines.
The Kailash temple at Ellora of the ninth century is an entire temple that was carved out of the natural hillside. The temple is really a massive sculpture cut out of a single piece of the hill. The artists started work from the top and carved downwards, beginning with the towering roof, the windows, the doors through which one enters into halls with enormous sculptured panels.
Stoneware
Rajasthan is famous for delicate jali work, for domestic architecture in yellow and pink limestone and white marble. Jaipur also produces stone figurines.
In Madhya Pradesh the soft marble rocks of Bhedaghat on the banks of the Narmada provide craftsmen with excellent raw material to make carved panels, figurines and boxes.
Uttar Pradesh is one of the leading producers and exporters of stoneware in India. Soft marble and soft streaked Gorahari stone of many shades are inlaid with semiprecious stones. Inlaid table tops, plates and decorative items are produced in Agra.
Tamil Nadu: Famous stone sculpture centres have been established in many places such as Mahabalipuram, where a training school has trained a number of young artists in traditional stone-carving techniques and in making statues
In Orissa the stone cutters of Puri work mainly in soapstone. Harder stone is used for temple building. Traditional stone carvers in Mangalpur make stone utensils from semi-hard grey stone and add to it a beautiful polish. Grey stone from Khichling are made into items for the urban market, like boxes and containers, bowls and vases.
At the time of Dussehra, Kullu valley comes alive with the arrival of many mohras (metal plaques of Durga) from different parts of Himachal Pradesh. These gold and silver masks were commissioned by the kings in ancient times. Each village brings its mohra from its local temple to Kullu in a decorated palki (palanquin). The mohras are then moved into a huge wooden rath that is pulled by hundreds of devotees. At the time of Dussehra you can see processions of these raths as they weave down the mountain. Musicians accompany each of the processions and the whole Kullu valley fills with the sound of their long metallic pipes. There are a variety of pipes, long telescopic ones known as shanal or karnal and the ‘S’-shaped curved trumpet known as narasingha. These are made by local metal-smiths who are often attached to the temple.
For 11,000 years human beings have been fashioning metal for their use.
♦ Ore metals are the source of most metals. First the ores are mined or quarried from beneath the earth, or dredged from lakes and rivers, then they are crushed and separated, and finally they are refined and smelted to produce metal.
♦ By 5000 BCE copper was used to make beads and pins. By 3000 BCE tin was added to copper to produce bronze, a harder metal. Iron, even harder than bronze, was widely produced by 500 BCE.
♦ The technology of how to master metals (copper, bronze, iron) developed independently in various parts of the world.
♦ By 3000 BCE, most of the gold extracting techniques used today were already known in Egypt.
♦ The concept of carats indicates the amount of gold in gold! Nowadays copper and silver are often added to gold to make it harder. The gold content in this is known as carats.
Soldering is used to join two parts of an article when it is manufactured in more than one piece. Joining together is done by using a metal alloy which the artisan prepares.
The oldest bronze images in our country date back to Mohen-jo-daro (2500 BCE).
Metal Craft Across India
In the Kinnaur District of Himachal Pradesh, the metal objects used for religious purposes are a unique synthesis of Hindu and Buddhist designs. The thunderbolt or vajra motif is commonly seen on kettles and jars. Fruit bowls with a silver or brass stand designed like a lotus, prayer wheels inscribed with the ‘om mani padme hum’ mantra, conch trumpets, miniature shrines and flasks are also made. Many of these forms come from ritual objects used in Tibetan Buddhist temples which are located next to Hindu temples all over Kinnaur
Teamwork is essential in the craft of metal-work. In Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh for example, the production of an enamelled hookah base would involve several different specialised skills, each practised by a different craftsman. A sunar makes the object; a chitrakar or nakashiwalla marks out the surface design; a chatera chisels away the depression in the design needed to hold the enamel; a minakar carries out the actual enamelling; a jilasaz polishes the object; a mulamasaz might gild it, while a kundanaz sets the stones required in the design. Successful teamwork of this sort clearly relies on a strong underlying design concept and a high degree of stylistic coherence, as well as a feeling of technical harmony amongst those responsible for each stage of the process.
Koftgari is the term for a type of silver and gold damascene work produced in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, Jaipur, Rajasthan, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh and Punjab. In ordinary damascene (tari-nishan), a technique used frequently to adorn the blades of swords, a chiselled groove is first made into which precious metal wire is hammered. The koftgari process is simpler and less time consuming, and allows for much freer decoration.
Bidri, a technique named after its place of origin, Bidar, Andhra Pradesh, is the application of inlay (mainly silver) to objects cast in a relatively soft alloy of zinc, copper and lead. After the inlay work is completed, the ground is stained black using chemicals, thus creating a splendid contrast to the silver decoration
In Kerala to make the uruli (wide-mouthed cooking vessel, with flat or curved rims) the lost wax process is used. A giant cauldron called varpu, which is magnificent in form, is used in temples for making prasad to feed thousands of devotees. Kerala also has a great tradition in making metal tumblers for drinking, which range in size and are very elegantly shaped.
Among the numerous ritualistic articles made of metal in Gujarat are large temple-bells. The famous temple-bell on the Girnar Hill weighs 240 kg. Another popular item is the typical low square stool and low arm chairs. This pure metal furniture was highly ornamented in a variety of styles and was used by royalty.
Nachiarkoil in Thanjavar District of Tamil Nadu is an important bell-metal centre. This is due to the presence of light brown sand called vandal on the banks of the Cauvery, ideally suited for making moulds.
Regional Varieties of Jewellery
The jewellery of Kashmir is quite distinct. The most important are the ear ornaments, known as kan-balle, worn by Muslim women on both sides of the head. They comprise a number of rings, which are attached to the hair or the cap. This jewellery is also worn in Ladakh and other Himalayan areas such as Lahaul, Spiti, and Kinnaur.
In Punjab, women wear a special ornament, chonk. It is cone-shaped and is worn at the top of the head with two smaller cones, known as phul, worn at the sides.
Though all the hill jewellery of Kullu and Kinnaur Districts is made in Hoshiarpur in Himachal Pradesh, it has its own particular style. The pipal patra, made out of bunches of heart-shaped silver leaves fastened to an enamelled piece of silver, is worn in these areas by women on both sides of their caps. It frames their faces with the light shimmering in cascades of silver. Their necklaces are formed out of large metal plates, engraved with the traditional designs of the region and filled with green and yellow enamel. The most common design is of Devi riding her lion. The nose ornaments of Kullu are also highly specialised. The large-sized nath and boulak designs of a single leaf are not to be seen in any other part of India. On festive occasions they wear a large nath, often larger than the face of the wearer.
Meenakari or Enamel Work
One of the most sophisticated forms of jewellery developed in North India is meenakari. Jaipur is the main centre, but some craftsmen practise this art in Delhi, Lucknow and Varanasi as well. Meenakari is combined with kundan to produce a delicate and rich effect. The meenakari or enamelled patterns are so fine and intricate that they need to be examined with a magnifying glass. This tradition continues even today.
A great variety of baskets, mats and floor coverings are made from grass and reed fibres which are referred to in local languages as moonj, sarkanda, kora, sikki, chipkiang, madur kathi, rice straw, kauna reed. Reeds grow naturally in marshy land and in ponds. Kauna is the local name for a reed or rush belonging to the family Cyperaceae which is cultivated in the wetlands of the Imphal valley. It has a cylindrical, soft and spongy stem which is woven into mats, square and rectangular cushions and mattresses by the women of the Meitei community of Manipur.
Korai (Tamil Nadu) or kora (Kerala) also of the Cyperaceae family is a sedge or wetland plant which is cultivated in the southern districts of Tamil Nadu. The stems are cut near the base of the plant, spliced vertically and dried in the sun. On drying the spliced stems curl into a smooth and tubular form. A large variety of mats—with stripes, geometrical motifs, natural and dyed colours—are woven in several districts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The mats are woven on horizontal floor looms. The ribbed natural coloured mats are popularly used as floor coverings.
In Midnapur District of West Bengal, another type of reed similar to kora called madur kathi (Cyperus corymbosus) is cultivated, harvested and processed. Finely spliced madur is woven into mats that have a central field enclosed by patterned borders. The weavers ingeniously use two subtly differentiated natural colour splits or selectively dyed parts of the splits to differentiate the borders with dyed colour. Both the loom and the weaving technique used are very basic but require the use of manual skills and craftsmanship rather than sophisticated equipment and technology
Unlike the woven mats, shital pati or ‘cool mats’ made by the plaiting technique are made in Assam and Tripura. The mat has a smooth and lustrous surface. The murta plant or (Maranta dichotoma) is harvested when green, washed in soda water and dried. It is then boiled and sliced into strips for plaiting the mat
In Uttar Pradesh and Bihar women make baskets using the technique of coiling. These compact containers are made for local use with spliced moonj or sikki grass stalks. The trays and shallow containers are used to store foodgrains and flour. Moonj baskets with multi-coloured fibres and bold patterns are made for a daughter’s trousseau. In the Madhubani District of Bihar, women make figurines of deities, animals and birds for ritual and everyday use with sikki or golden grass used in combination with multi-coloured dyed stalks. The imagery of these forms echoes the folk art of Mithila, the cultural region on the northern banks of the Ganges.
Furniture items such as the mooda or stools are examples of elegant products made entirely from natural fibres such as sarkanda and moonj. Sarkanda is a wild grass found in Haryana and its long stems are used in making the indigenous mooda.
Bamboo is a giant tree-like grass which mostly grows wild in the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. Bamboo is significant as a renewable resource that is found abundantly in India. These tall grasses have straight, woody and cylindrical stems, which have nodes. Some stems are hollow and some are solid.
Jute, a stem or bast fibre, is cultivated in West Bengal. Jute cloth is brittle and deteriorates with exposure to sun and rain. It has been popular as inexpensive packaging material. In the craft sector, today, there is a renewed interest in finding innovative applications of jute such as fashion accessories, bags and wall panelling using macramé, crochet, braiding and other non-woven techniques.
Cane is an important forest produce found mainly in north-eastern parts of India. It is cylindrical and of uniform thickness, solid and brown in colour. Its properties of being tough, flexible and elastic have made whole cane suitable for use in furniture, hats, walking sticks, fishing rods and baskets. In Arunachal Pradesh even suspension bridges are made of cane. Cane splits are used for tying and binding, and are especially used for finishing the rims and edges of baskets due to their smoothness and pliability.
Factory-made paper is now generally made of tightly packed and pressed fibres of rags, straw, wood, bamboo etc.
Handmade paper is made of pulp (obtained from the bark of certain trees) mixed with glues, and waste cloth from garment manufacturers.
Paper Cuts: The craftsmen of Mathura–Brindavan area make intricate paper-cut designs (locally known as Sanjhi) depicting various Krishnalila scenes. During festivals and marriages the craftsmen make exquisitely beautiful paper-cut flowers and varied colourful items that are used for decoration
Papier-mâché is used to create moulded forms of a variety of objects. It involves ornamentation of smoothened surfaces built up of paper pulp or layers of paper. The most sophisticated form of paper craft appears to be papier-mâché. The tradition of papier-mâché in Kashmir began in the fifteenth century. While in prison, in the magnificent Central Asian city of Samarkand, a young Kashmiri prince observed the craft of using paper pulp as the base for painted objects. This prince soon became King Zain-ulAbidin and invited accomplished artists and craftsmen from Central Asia to his court to make papier-mâché objects. The craft was originally known in Kashmir as Kar-iqalamdan, being confined to ornamentation of cases then used for keeping pens as well as some other small personal articles. The craft was also known as Kar-i-munaqqash since it was used for ornamenting smooth surfaces made of paper pulp or layers of polished paper
Secret of Silk
Some textile traditions came to us from other parts of the world—just as silk came to India from China. According to legend, the Chinese had banned the export of silk worms; however, they were smuggled into India by Chinese Buddhist monks in the hollow shafts of their cane walking sticks
Mix of Silk and Cotton:
Another glorious fabric is mashru, a lustrous weave from Gujarat, patterned in brilliant multi-coloured stripes, or dots as fine as rice grains. Though it appears like silk it is not really silk. Mashru, and himru, have a twisted weave with a silk underside to replicate the look and feel of satin while technically remaining cotton.
Tussar, Eri and Moga : India is the only source of tussar silk that comes from the Antheria Assamia moth, which feeds on the leaves of the Som and Wali trees. Tussar silk has a coarse, uneven texture and a slightly yellowish brown colour. Since it is less strong in texture and cannot be refined it does not have the same sheen or fineness as mulberry silk. Women weavers of Assam make their traditional meklachador costumes with golden moga and eri silk, which come from worms that feed on Ashoka and castor leaves rather than mulberry leaves.
The celebrated Kashmiri shahtoosh ‘ ring shawl’ made from the fleece of the wild Himalayan ibex is so fine that a metre of this woollen shawl can pass through a man’s signet ring. Production and sale is banned today for ecological reasons and to prevent the extinction of the ibex. Weaving it was a fine art, wearing it now a forbidden luxury.
Indian Embroidery
There are shawls from Kashmir that are magically two-sided with the same design embroidered in different colours on each side. This is known as do-rukha. A single shawl may take over two years to complete.
Punjab is famed for its traditional embroidery called phulkari — flowering work. Using threads in brilliant colours like flaming pinks, oranges, mustard yellows and creams, the reverse satin stitch is done on a brick-red khadi cloth. An allover embroidered shawl (dupatta) is called a bagh, literally resembling a garden of flowers.
Sujni, from Bihar, is a form of quilted embroidery with mainly narrative themes.
Chikan-work from Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, has many different stitches worked on cotton mull, creating a textured relief of flowers, paisleys and stars. The stitches have wonderful names—ghas-ki-patti as delicate as grass, murri which looks just like a grain of rice, and keel, the tip of a nail. The most common are: bakhia, a herringbone stitch done on the reverse of the material so that the design appears like a shadow, tepchi, a linked running stitch, and phanda, a tight round knot, used to form flowers and leaves.
Kantha, embroidery from Bengal , is made of thousands of fine stitches, giving the fabric a puckered quilted look. In Bangladesh and India kantha was used to make quilts and coverlets. Old sarees were folded together and embroidered with coloured threads pulled from saree borders. Now kantha embroiderers make sarees and dupattas for the metro market
Pipli in Orissa has its own unique form of appliqué—bold red, yellow and green dancing elephants and parrots, outlined with white or black chain-stitch on equally colourful base fabric. It was developed initially to make the rath procession hangings for the Puri Temple, but is now used for garden umbrellas, cushions and for other urban needs.
The Lambani, Lambada and Banjara gypsy tribes from Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka in South India create spectacular embroidery. Like the Kutchhis, they too wear wonderful skirts, backless blouses and veils, covered with vibrant, colourful mirrored designs, silver or metal coins and ornaments at the edges. Their designs are geometric rather than naturalistic flowers, birds and animals.
Sozni with its intricate detailing of flora and fauna derives its inspiration from the verdant, flowering beauty of the Kashmir valley. Tilla work is now a major business for wedding costumes, movie costumes and the fashion ramp, and it reflects the glory of the Mughal court that brought gold wire work from the Middle East and Byzantium. Today, rural women embroiderers are finding new empowerment and earning an income from their embroidery skills in the market.
Mordant is a fixing agent used to fix colours on to cotton cloth during the process of printing, painting or dyeing.
Kolam: the floor painting made by women at the entrance of their homes with white rice powder in Tamil Nadu
Asked in past prelims-
Kalamkari or vrathapani from Andhra Pradesh demonstrates the variety of natural materials used to create a work of art. Kalamkari means ‘pen work’ in Persian and refers to both printed and painted cloth. In the seventeenth century Persian influences led to artists experimenting with the depiction of trees, fruits, flowers and ornamental birds.
Styles of Painting
Artists in Chittorgarh, Rajasthan make wooden temples with doors that can be opened up to reveal elaborately painted stories of historical or religious importance. These wooden kavads are used for worship and on festive occasions.
Tanjore Painting is an interesting combination of art and craft that grew in the region of Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu under Maratha influence. The main colours are red, yellow, black, and white. The distinctive features were aristocratic or religious figures adorned with jewellery and surrounded by elaborate architectural arches and doorways. Originally done on wood, it is encrusted with semi-precious stones. Later the paintings were executed on glass. The glass paintings are coloured from outside inwards. The outlines and final touches have to be done first since the artist paints the picture from the reverse side of the glass.
Mithila painting, popularly known as Madhubani art is from the district of the same name in Bihar and is now well-known all over the world. Women decorate the nuptial chamber and the inner walls of their homes to celebrate festivals. The return of Ram from exile and Krishna playing with gopis are the preferred subject matter. Artists often show scenes of nature, an abundant harvest, tantric images of snake worship, and even city scenes if they have visited one.
The patachitra of Orissa depicts stories from the famous poem, the Geet Govind, and devotional stanzas by ancient poets, singers and writers. The pat was earlier made as a temple offering. Stories are drawn in sections on palm leaf as etchings or as paintings on paper and silk. Deep red, ochre, black and rich blue colours from minerals, shell and organic lac are used in these paintings. Modern developments have encouraged them to paint on wooden boxes, picture frames etc. for contemporary use.
The jharnapatachitra of West Bengal is a long vertical paper scroll used to tell stories from religious epics. The artists compose songs that they sing while they slowly unroll each scene of the painting. Old fabric is pasted on the back of the scroll to make it stronger. These village storytellers travelled from village to village listening to news and passing on information much like television today. The Gujarat earthquake of 2001 and the tsumani of 2004 inspired such singerartists to present ballads of these natural disasters.
The best known leather puppets in our country are those used in the Tholu Bomalatta of Andhra Pradesh . The origins of these puppets can be traced back to about 2000 BCE, as they are mentioned in the Mahabharata.
