Lineage and Descent — Systems of Kinship (UPSC Sociology)
Lineage and descent are the backbone of kinship systems. They determine who belongs to which family, how inheritance is passed, and what obligations bind individuals to kin. These principles create corporate groups that preserve identity, property, and alliances across generations. Anthropological and sociological studies of descent reveal how societies organise biological and social reproduction.
1) Basic Concepts — What Are Lineage and Descent?
- Descent: The rule of tracing kinship through certain lines of ancestry (male, female, or both).
- Lineage: A group of persons tracing descent from a common known ancestor.
- Clan: A larger kin group claiming descent from a remote or mythical ancestor (may not be genealogically proven).
- Phratry / Moiety: Broader segments uniting multiple clans for marriage or ritual purposes.
Diagram 1 — Descent Hierarchy
2) Types of Descent Systems
Descent systems vary by which side of the family lineage is traced. Anthropologists classify them into unilineal (one line) and bilateral (both lines) systems.
| Type | Definition | Key Features | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| Patrilineal | Descent traced through the male line | Children belong to father’s lineage; inheritance and name pass through males | Predominant in India, China, many Middle Eastern societies |
| Matrilineal | Descent traced through the female line | Children belong to mother’s lineage; property may pass to sister’s sons | Khasis and Garos of Meghalaya, Nairs of Kerala |
| Bilateral | Descent recognised on both sides | Kinship ties equally through both parents; inheritance divided | Modern urban and Western societies |
| Double Descent | Both patrilineal and matrilineal descent recognised for different purposes | Property may pass patrilineally; ritual roles matrilineally | Found among some Nigerian tribes (Yako, Ibibio) |
Diagram 2 — Types of Descent
3) Social Functions of Lineage
Lineages are not merely genealogical but corporate units performing social, economic, and ritual functions:
- Identity & Belonging: Establishes membership and kinship solidarity.
- Inheritance & Property: Determines rights over land, wealth, and obligations.
- Marriage Regulation: Defines exogamy and alliance systems.
- Political Role: In tribal and traditional societies, lineage forms the base for leadership or chieftainship.
- Ritual & Religious Duties: Ancestor worship and ceremonial roles follow lineage lines.
| Function | Mechanism | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Economic | Collective ownership of property | Land in patrilineal clans |
| Political | Leadership based on senior lineage | Tribal chieftainship |
| Ritual | Ancestor worship duties | Pind daan among Hindus |
| Marriage | Defines endogamy/exogamy rules | Gotra or clan exogamy |
4) Theoretical Approaches — How Anthropologists Explain Descent
- Morgan & Maine: Early evolutionists — kinship evolved from matrilineal to patrilineal systems with property and state formation.
- Radcliffe-Brown: Structural-functionalist — descent groups ensure social continuity and integration through obligations.
- Evans-Pritchard: Segmentary lineage system in African tribes (Nuer); lineage acts as both political and kinship organisation.
- Lévi-Strauss: Alliance theory emphasises affinal ties (marriage exchanges) complementing descent lines.
- Fortes: Descent is a corporate group principle—links between living and dead form “domestic domain.”
Diagram 3 — Descent Theories Overview
5) Indian Context — Lineage, Gotra, and Descent
In India, kinship and descent rules are closely tied to caste and marriage regulation. The Hindu gotra system represents patrilineal descent from ancient rishis, enforcing exogamy within lineages. Matrilineal systems exist among select communities.
| Community | Descent Rule | Inheritance Pattern | Marriage Regulation |
|---|---|---|---|
| North Indian Hindus | Patrilineal, gotra-based | Property via male heirs | Gotra and village exogamy |
| Nairs (Kerala) | Matrilineal (taravad) | Property through female line; maternal uncle guardian | Exogamy within lineage units |
| Khasis & Garos | Matrilineal (mother’s lineage) | Daughter inherits; youngest daughter often successor | Clan exogamy |
| Modern Urban Families | Bilateral / Individual | Equal inheritance for sons and daughters (post-2005) | Choice-based marriages |
Key Indian Scholars: Irawati Karve (regional kinship patterns), A.M. Shah (changing lineage under modernisation), Patricia Uberoi (continuities in kinship rituals).
6) UPSC Answer Toolkit — How to Write
- Define: Descent = rule of tracing kin; Lineage = group based on descent.
- Use one diagram (Hierarchy or Types) + one India-based example (Gotra or Nair taravad).
- Name theorists: Radcliffe-Brown, Evans-Pritchard, Lévi-Strauss, Fortes.
- Indianise: gotra, exogamy, matriliny (Khasis/Nairs).
- Conclude: Descent systems persist symbolically even as family becomes individualised.
Memory Keys: Descent = rule · Lineage = group… · Patrilineal vs Matrilineal vs Bilateral · Radcliffe-Brown (structure), Evans-Pritchard (segmentary), Lévi-Strauss (alliance) · India = gotra exogamy + regional matriliny · Continuity amid legal equality and individualisation.
