Labour and Society

This module analyses labour as the central link between economy and society using Marx (surplus value, alienation, labour process), Durkheim (division of labour & anomie), Weber (Protestant ethic, rationalisation), Polanyi (embedded vs disembedded economy), and contemporary thinkers (Sennett, Bauman, Beck, Standing, feminist economics). India-specific issues—informalisation, migration, gendered work, platform economy—are woven in for UPSC answers.

1) The Concept of Labour

Labour is purposive human effort (physical, cognitive, affective) deployed under particular social relations of production. It is never purely economic; it is socially organised and morally evaluated (status, dignity, rights).

2) Marx — Surplus Value, Alienation, Labour Process

2.1 Surplus Value & Class

• Capital–labour relation: workers sell labour-power as a commodity; capital appropriates surplus value (unpaid labour time).
• Absolute surplus (extend working day) vs relative surplus (raise productivity via technology/organisation).
• Class struggle over wages, hours, conditions; state mediates/legitimises (law, policy).

2.2 Alienation

• From product (no control/ownership), from process (external control/Taylorism), from others (competition), from species-being (stunted creativity).
• Contemporary forms: algorithmic management, piece-rate platforms, emotional labour in services.

2.3 Labour Process & Control

• Braverman: deskilling & managerial control under scientific management.
• Resistance: informal norms, shop-floor bargaining, unions; new forms—app log-offs, rating strikes.

3) Durkheim — Division of Labour & Anomie

Division of labour increases functional interdependence, generating organic solidarity. If moral regulation lags behind economic change, anomie (normlessness) erodes cohesion.

• Normal vs Pathological division of labour: coordination failures → anomic or forced division (mismatch of talents/status).
• Remedies: professional associations, just regulation, civic education—moral frameworks to stabilise expectations.

4) Weber — Protestant Ethic & Rationalisation of Work

• Protestant Ethic: ascetic vocational calling + worldly discipline legitimated systematic work and capital accumulation.
• Rationalisation: calculability, predictability, control → bureaucracy and the iron cage of formal rationality.
• Meaning of Work: from vocation to career metrics; tensions between substantive values and instrumental goals.

5) Polanyi — Embedded vs Disembedded Economy

Pre-capitalist labour was regulated by reciprocity, redistribution, custom (embedded). With market society, labour/land/money become fictitious commodities → society reacts with a double movement (market expansion vs social protection).

6) Contemporary Work — Precarity, Flexibility & Risk

6.1 Sennett & Bauman — Flexible Capitalism & Fragile Selves

• Sennett: short-termism erodes craftsmanship, loyalty, narrative coherence of careers.
• Bauman: “liquid modernity” — constant mobility/uncertainty; identities become fluid and anxious.

6.2 Ulrich Beck — Risk Society

• Modern production generates manufactured risks (technological, ecological, employment) requiring reflexive institutions.

6.3 Guy Standing — The Precariat

• Growing group with insecure work, variable income, weak rights/voice; needs new social protections and representation.

7) Feminist Economics — Care, Social Reproduction & Gendered Labour

• Social reproduction (household, care, community) reproduces labour-power yet remains undervalued/unpaid.
• Hartmann/Folbre: gendered division of labour; bargaining power shaped by norms, assets, law, services.
• Waged vs unwaged: recognise care work, maternity benefits, childcare, time-use visibility.

8) India Focus — Informalisation, Migration, Platforms, Gender

• Informal labour: large share in agriculture, construction, retail, services; mixed modes of control (contracting, piece-rate).
• Migration: seasonal/circular flows link rural households to urban labour markets; networks lower entry costs but can depress wages.
• Platform work: logistics, ride-hailing, food delivery — algorithmic management, rating discipline, debates on employment status.
• Women’s work: low labour force participation linked to norms, safety, childcare, measurement issues (home-based work invisibility).
• Protection & voice: social insurance portability, gig-worker coverage, skill missions, SHGs/producers, new union forms.

9) Integrated Flow — Marketisation → Control → Social Protection

10) Answer-Writing Toolkit (UPSC)

• Open with a definition of labour + one comparator (e.g., work vs labour; paid vs unpaid).
• Choose the right spine for the question: Marx (extraction/alienation), Durkheim (integration/anomie), Weber (meaning/rationality), Polanyi (embedding).
• Triangulate: combine at least two lenses (e.g., Marx + Polanyi for platform work; Durkheim + Weber for bureaucracy & morale).
• Indianise: informalisation, migration, gig work, SHGs, gendered care—use as live illustrations.
• Close with solutions: portable social security, skill ladders, childcare, worker voice, algorithmic transparency.

UPSC Summary Pointers

• Marx: surplus value & alienation explain exploitation and quality-of-work debates.
• Durkheim: division of labour integrates complex society but risks anomie without moral regulation.
• Weber: ethic of vocation birthed disciplined work; rationalisation brings efficiency and the iron cage.
• Polanyi: labour as fictitious commodity triggers the double movement toward social protection.
• Contemporary: flexibility → precarity; metric governance; gendered care; platform labour needing new rights.