Dimensions of Stratification — Ethnicity and Race

Ethnicity and Race are socially constructed dimensions of stratification based on perceived cultural or biological differences. They create systems of inclusion and exclusion, influencing identity, life chances, and power. While race historically justified domination, ethnicity explains group boundaries and identity in multicultural societies.

1️⃣ Understanding Ethnicity and Race

Ethnicity refers to shared cultural traits — language, religion, ancestry, or customs — that create a sense of belonging. Race historically denoted physical differences (skin color, phenotype) interpreted as biological but now understood as social constructions used to justify inequality.

Historical Evolution

• 18th–19th century: Race linked to pseudo-biological hierarchies (Gobineau, Spencer).
• 20th century: Social anthropology emphasized cultural relativism (Boas, Malinowski).
• Contemporary view: Race and ethnicity are socially constructed identities that can change over time.

2️⃣ Major Theoretical Perspectives

Functionalist Perspective

• Assimilation theory (Robert Park, Milton Gordon): ethnic groups gradually integrate into dominant culture, adopting language and values.
• Ethnic pluralism may persist but within shared social institutions.
• Criticism — ignores power, discrimination, and resistance.

Conflict Perspective (Marxist & Neo-Marxist)

• Ethnic and racial divisions serve ruling-class interests by dividing the working class (split-labour market theory – Bonacich).
• Oliver Cox and Robert Blauner argued racism arises from colonialism and economic exploitation.
• Immanuel Wallerstein: racial hierarchy reproduces core–periphery dependency globally.

Weberian Perspective

• Max Weber treated ethnicity as a form of status group identification — a sense of common descent used for social closure.
• Ethnic groups monopolize social honor and restrict outsiders, similar to caste and class closure.
• Frank Parkin expanded this into social-closure theory (exclusion & usurpation).

Interactionist & Constructivist Perspective

• Fredrik Barth (1969) emphasized that ethnic boundaries are maintained through interaction and boundary maintenance, not cultural content.
• Ethnicity is situational — its salience changes with context (Barth’s “Ethnic Groups and Boundaries”).
• Erving Goffman: stigmatization labels certain racial/ethnic identities as “spoiled,” affecting social roles.

Post-Colonial and Critical Race Perspectives

• W. E. B. Du Bois: introduced the concept of double consciousness — African-Americans see themselves through both self-identity and the white gaze.
• Frantz Fanon: colonialism internalized racial inferiority; liberation needs psychological decolonization.
• Omi & Winant: racial formation theory — race is produced by social, political, and economic processes, not fixed biology.

3️⃣ Patterns of Ethnic Relations

• Assimilation: minorities adopt dominant culture.
• Pluralism: coexistence with distinct identities (Horace Kallen).
• Segregation: enforced separation (apartheid, U.S. Jim Crow).
• Genocide / Ethnic cleansing: deliberate extermination (Holocaust, Rwanda).
• Multiculturalism: recognition of diversity within shared citizenship (Canada, India).

4️⃣ Ethnicity, Race, and Mobility

Mobility across ethnic or racial boundaries is limited because group membership is largely ascribed. Discrimination, prejudice, and institutional racism restrict access to education, jobs, and political participation.

• Horizontal mobility — between ethnic subgroups of similar status.
• Vertical mobility — upward or downward movement across ethnic/racial hierarchies (rare).
• Intersectionality (Kimberlé Crenshaw): ethnicity interacts with gender, class, and caste to produce compounded disadvantage.

5️⃣ Indian and Global Context

• India: ethnic diversity seen among tribes, linguistic groups, and regional identities. Tribal marginalization parallels racial exclusion elsewhere.
• North-East India: ethnicity central to political mobilization and autonomy movements.
• Global: racial stratification persists through colour hierarchy, immigration policies, and citizenship laws (e.g., Black Lives Matter, refugees in Europe).

Andre Béteille

Béteille emphasized that ethnic and caste identities in India operate like status groups, maintaining social closure and limiting mobility despite modernization.

Anthony Giddens

Giddens highlighted globalization’s impact: migration and diasporas create hybrid identities, producing both cosmopolitan integration and ethnic revivalism.

6️⃣ Summary Table — Ethnicity and Race as Stratification Bases

UPSC Summary Pointers

• Ethnicity = shared cultural identity; Race = socially constructed biological difference.
• Functionalism → assimilation; Conflict → racism as class domination; Weberian → status closure.
• Key thinkers — Weber, Barth, Du Bois, Fanon, Omi & Winant, Parkin, Giddens.
• In India, ethnic stratification parallels caste and tribal exclusion.
• Answer tip: use global and Indian examples + intersectionality for high marks.