Development & Dependency — Visual+Explanatory Guide
1) Concept of Development — From Economic Growth to Human Capabilities
Economic development emphasises rising income, productivity, and structural transformation (agriculture → industry/services). Sociological development goes further: it asks how institutions, culture, power, equality, sustainability and capabilities (Sen; Nussbaum) change so people can be and do what they value (health, education, voice, dignity). Development is thus a conversion process: growth enables structural change, which needs robust institutions to translate into human development.
| Axis | Economic View | Sociological View | UPSC Hook |
|---|---|---|---|
| Definition | Income, productivity | Institutions, culture, equality, capabilities | “Beyond GDP” (Sen/Nussbaum) |
| Mechanism | Capital, tech, markets | Differentiation (Parsons), rights, policy, movements | Institutions matter |
| Indicators | GDP/GNI | HDI, GII, MPI, trust, sustainability | Triangulate econ + social |
| Critiques | Growth-first bias | Ethnocentrism, ecology, gender, power | Multiple modernities |
2) Modernisation Theories — Rostow, Lerner, Inkeles & Smith, Parsons
Modernisation views development as a transition from traditional to modern structures via investment, technology, media, values, and institutions. It’s useful as a policy roadmap, but must be balanced with power-sensitive critiques (dependency/world-systems).
2.1 Rostow — Stages of Growth (Teleological Roadmap)
Rostow argues economies pass through five stages: (1) traditional society, (2) preconditions for take-off, (3) take-off (investment crosses a threshold; rapid industrialisation), (4) drive to maturity (diversification, technology deepening), (5) high mass consumption (widespread affluence). This offers neat sequencing but underplays power, dependency, and ecology.
2.2 Lerner — Media, Empathy & Participation
Lerner posits that media exposure creates empathy/psychic mobility—people imagine different lives, migrate, and participate politically. Communication thus lubricates modernisation, but media are embedded in power and ownership, and can misinform or exclude.
2.3 Inkeles & Smith — “Modern Personality”
Inkeles & Smith describe traits (time discipline, efficacy, universalism, openness) that schooling and work inculcate. This explains micro-to-macro links but risks essentialising culture, ignoring constraints of class/caste/gender.
2.4 Parsons — Differentiation & Evolutionary Universals
Parsons argues modernity proceeds through structural differentiation across AGIL functions—Adaptation (economy), Goal (polity), Integration (law/norms), Latency (culture/family)—and value generalisation (universalistic norms). This shows why institutions matter but can have status-quo bias.
| Theorist | Driver | Mechanism | Strength | Core Critique |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rostow | Investment & tech | Stage progression | Policy clarity | Teleology; ignores power/dependency |
| Lerner | Media & empathy | Participation ↑ | Role of communication | Ownership/power of media |
| Inkeles–Smith | Values & education | Modern personality | Micro–macro bridge | Culture essentialism |
| Parsons | Differentiation | AGIL + universals | Institutional view | Status-quo bias |
3) Dependency Theories — Frank, Cardoso & Faletto, Amin
Dependency theory reframes underdevelopment as relational: the core extracts surplus from the periphery through unequal trade, finance, and political power. Variants differ in strategy—from dependent development via alliances (Cardoso–Faletto) to delinking (Amin).
3.1 Frank — Metropolis–Satellite Surplus Drain
Andre Gunder Frank shows how core “metropolises” draw surplus from “satellite” peripheries via unequal terms of trade, profit repatriation, debt service and political leverage. The periphery becomes underdeveloped because of its development in a subordinate world economy.
3.2 Cardoso & Faletto — Dependent Development
Cardoso & Faletto argue that some peripheries can industrialise within dependence through alliances between the state, local capital, and foreign capital. Outcomes vary by class coalitions (e.g., authoritarian ISI vs democratic bargains): growth may come with inequality unless inclusion is negotiated.
3.3 Samir Amin — Unequal Exchange & Delinking
Samir Amin highlights unequal exchange: global prices undervalue peripheral labour/nature while core firms capture rents using technology, finance, and market power. His strategy of delinking is not isolation but reorienting toward domestic linkages (demand, technology, finance) to reduce vulnerability.
| Thinker | Core Claim | Mechanism | Policy Orientation | Limitation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Frank | Underdevelopment is relational | Metropolis–satellite surplus drain | Reduce dependence | Agency underplayed |
| Cardoso–Faletto | Dependent development possible | State–local–foreign alliances | Strategic integration | Inequality can persist |
| Amin | Unequal exchange | Core price/tech power | Selective delinking | Feasibility trade-offs |
4) World-Systems Theory — Wallerstein
Wallerstein sees a single capitalist world-economy divided into core (high-value, strong states), semi-periphery (mixed production, mobility), and periphery (raw inputs, weak states). This lens explains value chains, uneven development, and limited mobility; hegemony shifts across long cycles (Dutch → British → US).
| Zone | Production Profile | State Capacity | Labour Regime | Mobility Potential |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Core | High-value manufacturing/services | Strong rule-of-law | Regulated/free labour | Maintain dominance |
| Semi-Periphery | Mixed; upgrading niches | Medium/contested | Hybrid regimes | Buffer; up or down |
| Periphery | Raw/low-value assembly | Weak/dependent | Coercive/cheap labour | Low; needs coalitions |
UPSC Answer Toolkit — How to Write
- Define development both economically and sociologically; bring in “beyond GDP” (Sen/Nussbaum).
- Use modernisation as a spine (Rostow/Lerner/Inkeles/Parsons), then critique with Dependency (Frank/Cardoso–Faletto/Amin) and World-Systems (Wallerstein).
- Structure answers with visuals: refer to Diagrams 1–8 to show causal links quickly.
- Indianise: value-chain upgrading, inclusion (social protection), regional gaps, sustainability.
- Conclude: strategic integration + domestic capability-building + worker/citizen protections + ecological prudence.
