Category SOCIOLOGY
Ethnomethodology and Conversation Analysis: UPSC Sociology Paper I
Ethnomethodology and Conversation Analysis Ethnomethodology (Harold Garfinkel) investigates the members’ methods by which ordinary people produce and sustain social order in real time. It treats order as an ongoing accomplishment, made visible through practical reasoning, talk, and mundane routines. Conversation…
Phenomenological Sociology: UPSC Sociology Paper I
Phenomenological Sociology Phenomenological Sociology is a major non-positivist approach that studies how individuals construct and experience the social world through consciousness, perception, and everyday interaction. Rooted in the philosophy of Edmund Husserl and developed by Alfred Schutz, it views society…
Non-Positivist Methodologies in Sociology: UPSC Module
Non-Positivist Methodologies in Sociology Non-positivist methodologies arise from the view that human social life is constituted by meanings, symbols, lifeworlds, and power, which cannot be exhaustively captured by natural-science models of law-like causation. They prioritize understanding (Verstehen), interpretation, reflexivity, and…
Fact, Value, and Objectivity in Sociology: UPSC Module
Positivism and Its Critique: UPSC Sociology I
Positivism and Its Critique in Sociology Positivism established sociology as a science of society, modeled on the natural sciences and oriented to observation, measurement, causality, and prediction. From Auguste Comte to Émile Durkheim, and later the Vienna Circle (Logical Positivism),…
Postmodern and Poststructuralist Research Methodology in Sociology: UPSC Module
Postmodern and Poststructuralist Research Methodology in Sociology The Postmodern and Poststructuralist strand of research methodology emerged in the late 20th century as a radical critique of science, reason, and universal truth. It challenges all “grand narratives” that claim to explain…
Feminist Research Methodology in Sociology: UPSC Module
Feminist Research Methodology in Sociology Feminist Research Methodology challenges the male-centered bias of traditional sociology and redefines how knowledge is created, validated, and applied. It insists that gender is a central category of analysis and that research must aim not…
Critical and Emancipatory Research Methodology in Sociology: UPSC Module
Interpretivist Research Methodology in Sociology: UPSC Module
Interpretivist Research Methodology in Sociology The Interpretivist strand of research methodology emerged as a reaction against the rigidity of positivism. It emphasizes meanings, motives, and subjective understanding of human actions rather than discovering universal laws. Associated mainly with Max Weber,…
Positivist Research Methodology: UPSC Sociology
Positivist Research Methodology in Sociology The Positivist strand is the earliest and most influential tradition in sociological methodology. Rooted in the model of natural sciences, it views society as an objective reality governed by discoverable laws. Thinkers like Auguste Comte…
Major Theoretical Strands of Research Methodology: UPSC Sociology I
Major Theoretical Strands of Research Methodology Research methodology in sociology is shaped by different theoretical traditions—each offering distinct assumptions about reality (ontology), knowledge (epistemology), and methods (techniques of inquiry). The five dominant strands are Positivist, Interpretive, Critical, Feminist, and Postmodern.…
Science, Scientific Method, and Critique (UPSC Sociology – Paper I)
Science, Scientific Method, and Critique (Sociology) Can sociology be a science? What does a scientific method look like for studying human meanings, institutions, and power? This module explains the logic of scientific inquiry in sociology, its classic forms (positivism), alternative…
Sociology and Common Sense: UPSC Sociology
Sociology and Common Sense Sociology and common sense both deal with understanding human behavior, but they differ in their method, objectivity, and purpose. While common sense is based on everyday experiences, intuition, and beliefs, sociology seeks systematic, scientific, and verifiable…
Comparison of Sociology with Other Social Sciences: UPSC Module
Comparison of Sociology with Other Social Sciences Sociology shares its domain with several social sciences like Anthropology, Psychology, Political Science, Economics, and History. Each discipline studies human behavior, but from different angles. Sociology occupies a unique position as a synthetic…
Scope of the Subject (Sociology): UPSC
Scope of the Subject (Sociology) Sociology is the systematic and scientific study of society — its structures, institutions, processes, and meanings. The scope of sociology defines its subject matter, boundaries, and interrelations with other disciplines. It seeks to understand social…
Modernity and Social Changes in Europe and Emergence of Sociology as a Discipline
Karl Marx: Theory of Class Struggle for UPSC Sociology
Karl Marx: Theory of Alienation for UPSC Sociology
Karl Marx: Theory of Historical Materialism & Mode of Production for UPSC Sociology
Robert K. Merton’s Theory of Reference Groups: UPSC Sociology
Robert K. Merton’s Theory of Reference Groups A comprehensive, exam-ready module on Merton’s Reference Group Theory — with explanatory paragraphs, visual flowcharts, and responsive tables for fast conceptual recall for UPSC Sociology. 1️⃣ Background and Origins Merton developed the Reference…
Robert K. Merton’s Theory of Conformity and Deviance: UPSC Sociology
Robert K. Merton’s Theory of Conformity and Deviance 1️⃣ Background and Context Robert K. Merton (1910–2003), a key American functionalist, expanded upon Durkheim’s concept of anomie to explain deviant behavior within structured societies. Whereas Durkheim viewed anomie as a breakdown…
Talcott Parsons’ Theory of Social Systems and Pattern Variables- UPSC Sociology
Talcott Parsons’ Theory of Social Systems A concise, exam-focused breakdown of Parsons’ structural functionalism—highlighting his AGIL model, pattern variables, systemic equilibrium, and criticisms. Perfect for last-minute UPSC Sociology revision. 1️⃣ Background Talcott Parsons (1902–1979) was the chief architect of structural…
Émile Durkheim’s Theory of Religion: UPSC Sociology Module
Emile Durkheim’s Theory of Suicide: UPSC Sociology Module
Emile Durkheim’s Theory of Social Facts: UPSC Sociology Module
The “Iron Cage of Bureaucracy” — Max Weber
The “Iron Cage of Bureaucracy” — Max Weber 1) What Weber Meant Weber used the metaphor “iron cage” to describe the condition of modern individuals and institutions caught within systems of formal rationality—fixed rules, calculation, documentation, and hierarchical control. Bureaucracy…
Max Weber — Theory of Authority and Bureaucracy: UPSC Sociology Module
Max Weber — Theory of Authority and BureaucracyWeber’s framework explaining legitimacy of power and rational organization in modern societies. Exam Focus Covers Power vs Authority, Three types of Authority, Features of Bureaucracy, Dysfunctions, and Routinization of Charisma. 1️⃣ Background and…
Max Weber Theory of Ideal Types: UPSC Sociology
Max Weber’s Theory of Social Action: UPSC Sociology Module
Max Weber’s Theory of Social ActionWeber’s interpretive framework that studies subjective meanings individuals attach to their actions. Exam Focus Covers meaning of social action, types of action, Verstehen, Ideal Type, and rationalization — crucial for Paper I (Sociological Thinkers). 1️⃣…
Émile Durkheim’s Division of Labor in Society: UPSC Sociology Module
Robert K. Merton’s Theory of Manifest Functions & Latent Functions
Robert K. Merton’s Theory of Manifest FunctionsIntended and recognized consequences of a social action or institution. & Latent FunctionsUnintended and unrecognized consequences—often revealing hidden social patterns. Exam Focus Distinguish between stated purposes and actual consequences; cite classic cases (e.g., rain…
Max Weber’s Theory of Protestant Ethic & the Spirit of Capitalism
GEORGE HERBERT MEAD: Quick Revision Module on Theory of Self and Identity
ROBERT K. MERTON- Quick Revision Module for UPSC Sociology
Robert K. Merton: Essential Sociological Theories for UPSC A comprehensive summary of Latent and Manifest Functions, Conformity and Deviance (Strain Theory), and Reference Groups for quick UPSC Sociology revision. Merton’s Core Sociological Theories: Quick Reference Theory Core Concept Revision Focus…
Karl Marx vs Max Weber: Quick Revision Module
Emile Durkheim’s Theories: Quick Revision Module (Summary, Tables & Flowcharts)
Émile Durkheim’s Theories: A Comprehensive Summary for UPSC Sociology Durkheim’s work is the foundational text for the functionalist perspective. He aimed to study society scientifically by treating **social facts** as things, defining sociology as the science of institutions, and seeking…
Karl Marx’s Theories: Quick Revision Module (Summary, Tables & Flowcharts)
Talcott Parsons Theories: Quick Revision Module (Summary, Tables & Flowcharts)
Talcott Parsons is a key figure in classical sociological theory, known for his **Structural Functionalism** and highly abstract, integrated theoretical system. For UPSC aspirants, a comprehensive summary focuses on his core concepts: **Social Action, Social System, Pattern Variables, AGIL Scheme,…
Conflict Zones in the World- UPSC Quick Revision
Max Weber Theories- Quick Revision Module (Summary, Tables & Flowcharts)
Karl Marx – Fastest Revision Spreadsheet
Karl Marx — Theories in a Nutshell (Hover for Meanings) 1) Historical Materialism Concept Explanation Base & Superstructure Economic base determines superstructure. Material Conditions Material/economic forces drive history, not ideas. Dialectical Process Change via contradictions → Thesis → Antithesis →…
Sociology Paper 1 UPSC 2023 – Questions and Solutions
Sociology UPSC 2023 Questions and Solutions – Paper 2
SECTION ‘A’ Write short answers, with a sociological perspective, on the following questions in about 150 words each:a). Highlight the significant features of A.R. Desai’s ‘Dialectical Perspective’ to study Indian Society. Answer- A.R. Desai’s dialectical perspective focuses on the study…
Sociology and Common Sense
Comparison of Sociology With Other Social Sciences
Sociology, like other social sciences, seeks to understand human behavior and societal dynamics. However, it differs in its focus, methods, and scope. Below is a detailed comparison of Sociology with Psychology, History, Economics, Philosophy, Anthropology, and Political Science. 1. Sociology…
Scope of Sociology Discipline
VERSTEHEN- MAX WEBER
Difference Between KARL MARX and MAX WEBER
KARL POPPER- FALSIFICATION AND DEDUCTION AND POSITIVISM IN SOCIOLOGY
Karl Popper was a philosopher of science who developed the theory of falsification as a response to the shortcomings he identified in positivism and other traditional scientific methodologies. Popper’s falsification theory provided a new approach to scientific investigation, emphasizing the…
POSITIVISM AND ITS CRITIQUE IN SOCIOLOGY
CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE IN SOCIOLOGY
STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONAL PERSPECTIVE IN SOCIOLOGY
PATRIARCHY AND SEXUAL DIVISION OF LABOUR
ROBERT K. MERTON- Complete Revision Summary for UPSC Mains
R.K. Merton’s Functional Postulates: Introduction Robert K. Merton, an influential American sociologist, developed a set of functional postulates as part of his functionalist approach to sociology. Functionalism is a theoretical perspective that views society as a complex system of interrelated…
LATENT AND MANIFEST FUNCTIONS- R K MERTON
Merton’s Latent and Manifest Functions: Explanation, Case Studies, and Famous Examples Introduction Sociologist Robert K. Merton developed the concepts of latent and manifest functions as part of his functionalist approach to analyzing social phenomena. Manifest functions are the intended and…
CONFORMITY AND DEVIANCE- R K MERTON’S STRAIN THEORY
R.K. Merton’s Strain Theory, Conformity, and Deviance: An In-Depth Explanation Introduction R.K. Merton’s strain theory, developed in the 1930s and 1940s, is a sociological framework that seeks to explain the relationship between social structure, culture, and deviant behavior. The theory…
ANTICIPATORY SOCIALISATION- Reference Group Theory by R K Merton
Anticipatory Socialization: An In-Depth Explanation Introduction Anticipatory socialization is a concept within sociology, initially introduced by Robert K. Merton as part of his reference group theory. This process involves individuals learning and adopting the values, norms, and behaviors of a…
REFERENCE GROUP THEORY- R. K. MERTON
Introduction R.K. Merton’s reference group theory focuses on social comparison and its influence on individual behavior and attitudes. The theory posits that individuals evaluate themselves by comparing their own attributes and achievements to those of a reference group. Definition of…
MAX WEBER- QUICK REVISION SUMMARY
SOCIAL ACTION THEORY Max Weber’s Social Action Theory is a cornerstone of his sociological perspective, which emphasizes the importance of understanding human behavior within its social context. According to Weber, sociology should aim to interpret and understand social action, which…
MODES, MEANS, AND RELATIONS OF PRODUCTION- Karl Marx
DIALECTICAL MATERIALISM- KARL MARX
Introduction Dialectical materialism is a philosophical framework developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, which combines the principles of dialectics and historical materialism. This theory emphasizes the role of material conditions, such as economic factors and social relations, in shaping…
THEORY OF ALIENATION – KARL MARX
Introduction The theory of alienation, also known as species-being or estrangement, is a fundamental concept in Karl Marx’s philosophical and sociological thought. Alienation refers to the process by which individuals become separated from their natural conditions of existence, losing control…
KARL MARX- Quick Revision Summary
HISTORICAL MATERIALISM Historical materialism is a theory developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels that offers a materialist interpretation of history, focusing on the ways in which economic and technological conditions shape social relations, institutions, and ideas. According to Marx,…