Methods of Research in Psychology
Survey • Observation • Case Study • Experiment
Introduction: Meaning and Importance of Research Methods in Psychology
Psychology is a scientific discipline, and its credibility depends on the methods used to collect, analyze, and interpret data. Research methods provide psychologists with systematic tools to observe behaviour, measure mental processes, test hypotheses, and build theories.
Unlike philosophy or speculation, psychological knowledge must be:
- Empirically observable
- Systematically recorded
- Open to verification and replication
Different research problems require different methods. For example:
- Large-scale attitudes → Survey
- Natural behaviour in context → Observation
- In-depth understanding of an individual → Case Study
- Cause–effect relationship → Experiment
No single method is superior in all situations. The scientific strength of psychology lies in methodological pluralism—using the right method for the right question.
graph TD Q[Research Question] --> M1[Survey] Q --> M2[Observation] Q --> M3[Case Study] Q --> M4[Experiment] M1 --> K[Psychological Knowledge] M2 --> K M3 --> K M4 --> K
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BLOCK 1: Survey Method
The survey method is a widely used research technique in psychology for collecting information from a large number of people about their attitudes, beliefs, opinions, experiences, and behaviours. It is particularly useful when the aim is to describe patterns and trends in populations.
1. Nature and Features of Survey Method
- Uses questionnaires, interviews, or rating scales
- Data collected from a representative sample
- Can be cross-sectional or longitudinal
- Mostly descriptive or correlational
Large-scale surveys on mental health prevalence, voting behaviour, job satisfaction, or social attitudes.
2. Types of Surveys
| Type | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Questionnaire Survey | Written set of questions answered by respondents | Online stress questionnaire for students |
| Interview Survey | Direct verbal interaction with respondents | Mental health interview schedules |
| Cross-sectional Survey | Data collected at one point in time | One-time survey on exam anxiety |
| Longitudinal Survey | Data collected over time | Tracking adolescent well-being over years |
3. Famous Psychological Applications
- Kinsey Reports — surveys on human sexual behaviour
- World Happiness Reports — large-scale well-being surveys
- National Mental Health Surveys — prevalence of disorders
4. Advantages of Survey Method
- Covers large populations efficiently
- Economical in time and cost
- Useful for studying attitudes and opinions
- High external validity if sampling is good
5. Limitations of Survey Method
- Relies on self-report (social desirability bias)
- Limited depth of information
- Cannot establish cause–effect relationships
- Response biases and non-response errors
6. Explanatory Diagram: Survey Research Process
graph TD POP[Target Population] --> SAM[Sample Selection] SAM --> TOOL[Questionnaire / Interview] TOOL --> RESP[Responses] RESP --> DATA[Data Analysis] DATA --> FIND[Patterns & Trends]
When the goal is to describe what people think, feel, or report doing across a large group—rather than explaining causes.
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BLOCK 2: Observation Method
The observation method involves the systematic watching, listening, and recording of behaviour as it occurs in its natural or controlled setting. Unlike surveys, which depend on self-reports, observation focuses on actual behaviour, making it one of the most direct methods of psychological inquiry.
This method answers the question: “How do people actually behave?” rather than what they say they do. It is widely used in developmental, social, clinical, and educational psychology.
Observation is especially valuable when participants cannot accurately report their behaviour (e.g., children, patients, crowds, or socially sensitive contexts).
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1. Nature and Characteristics of Observation
- Behaviour is recorded as it occurs
- Observer does not rely on verbal reports
- Can be qualitative or quantitative
- Requires careful planning and operational definitions
Observing classroom behaviour to record attention span, peer interaction, and teacher–student dynamics.
graph TD SET[Behavioural Setting] --> OBS[Observation] OBS --> REC[Systematic Recording] REC --> DATA[Behavioural Data] DATA --> INT[Interpretation]
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2. Types of Observation
| Type | Description | Illustrative Example |
|---|---|---|
| Naturalistic Observation | Behaviour observed in natural environment without interference | Observing children’s play behaviour in a park |
| Controlled Observation | Behaviour observed in structured or laboratory setting | Observing problem-solving behaviour in a lab |
| Participant Observation | Observer becomes part of the group | Studying group dynamics in therapy sessions |
| Non-participant Observation | Observer remains detached | Observing classroom interaction from the back |
| Structured Observation | Uses predefined categories and checklists | Recording aggressive acts using behaviour codes |
| Unstructured Observation | Flexible, exploratory observation | Initial study of social interaction patterns |
graph TD OBS[Observation Method] --> NAT[Naturalistic] OBS --> CON[Controlled] OBS --> PAR[Participant] OBS --> NON[Non-participant] OBS --> STR[Structured] OBS --> UNSTR[Unstructured]
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3. Famous Psychological Studies Using Observation
- Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment — Observation of children imitating aggressive behaviour.
- Jane Goodall’s Primate Studies — Long-term naturalistic observation of chimpanzee behaviour.
- Harlow’s Monkey Studies — Observation of attachment behaviour in primates.
These studies demonstrated that observation can reveal learning through imitation, emotional bonds, and social behaviour that cannot be fully captured through surveys.
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4. Advantages of Observation Method
- Captures real, spontaneous behaviour
- Useful when self-report is unreliable
- High ecological validity in naturalistic settings
- Essential for studying children and animals
5. Limitations of Observation Method
- Observer bias and subjectivity
- Time-consuming and labour-intensive
- Limited control over variables
- Presence of observer may alter behaviour (reactivity)
Observation must respect privacy, consent, and dignity—especially in natural settings.
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6. Explanatory Diagram: Observation Process in Psychology
graph TD DEF[Define Behaviour] --> PLAN[Observation Plan] PLAN --> SET[Select Setting] SET --> OBSR[Observe Behaviour] OBSR --> CODE[Coding & Recording] CODE --> ANAL[Analysis] ANAL --> CONC[Conclusions]
When the aim is to understand how behaviour unfolds in real time, especially in natural or social contexts.
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BLOCK 3: Case Study Method
The case study method involves an intensive, in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, institution, or event over a period of time. Unlike surveys and observations that aim for breadth, case studies aim for depth, detail, and holistic understanding.
This method answers the question: “How and why does a particular psychological phenomenon develop in this unique case?” It is especially important in clinical psychology, abnormal psychology, developmental psychology, and psychotherapy research.
A case study treats the individual not as a data point, but as a complex psychological system shaped by biology, experience, environment, and social context.
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1. Nature and Characteristics of Case Study Method
- Focuses on a single case or a very small number of cases
- Uses multiple sources of data
- Longitudinal and detailed
- Emphasises qualitative understanding
- Clinical interviews
- Psychological tests
- Life histories and diaries
- Medical and educational records
- Observation reports
graph TD CASE[Individual / Group / Event] --> INT[Interviews] CASE --> TEST[Psychological Tests] CASE --> OBS[Observation] CASE --> DOC[Records & Documents] INT --> INTG[Integrated Understanding] TEST --> INTG OBS --> INTG DOC --> INTG
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2. Types of Case Studies
| Type | Description | Illustrative Example |
|---|---|---|
| Clinical Case Study | Detailed study of a patient with psychological disorder | Freud’s analysis of Little Hans |
| Developmental Case Study | Traces psychological growth over time | Longitudinal study of gifted children |
| Institutional Case Study | Study of an organisation or institution | Psychological climate of a prison |
| Critical Incident Case Study | Focus on rare or extreme phenomena | Study of brain-damaged patients |
graph TD CS[Case Study] --> CL[Clinical] CS --> DEV[Developmental] CS --> INST[Institutional] CS --> CRIT[Critical / Rare Cases]
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3. Famous Case Studies in Psychology
- Little Hans (Sigmund Freud) — Childhood phobia used to develop psychoanalytic concepts.
- Anna O. — Foundation of psychoanalysis and the concept of talking cure.
- Phineas Gage — Demonstrated the role of frontal lobes in personality.
- HM (Henry Molaison) — Revealed the role of hippocampus in memory formation.
These cases transformed psychology by revealing mechanisms that could never be ethically or practically studied through experiments.
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4. Advantages of Case Study Method
- Provides rich, detailed, holistic data
- Useful for rare, unusual, or extreme cases
- Generates new hypotheses and theories
- Essential for clinical diagnosis and therapy
5. Limitations of Case Study Method
- Limited generalisability
- Subjectivity and researcher bias
- Difficult to replicate
- Time-consuming and resource-intensive
Case studies can explain how something happened, but cannot conclusively prove that it will happen the same way in others.
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6. Explanatory Diagram: Case Study Research Process
graph TD ID[Identify Case] --> DATA[Collect Multi-source Data] DATA --> ANAL[Qualitative Analysis] ANAL --> PAT[Pattern Identification] PAT --> THEO[Theory Building] THEO --> APP[Clinical / Applied Insight]
When the objective is to gain deep insight into complex psychological phenomena that cannot be reduced to variables.
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BLOCK 4: Experimental Method
The experimental method is the most rigorous and powerful research method in psychology. It involves the systematic manipulation of one or more variables under controlled conditions to determine cause–effect relationships.
Unlike survey, observation, or case study methods, experiments directly answer the question: “Does X cause Y?” This makes the experimental method central to scientific psychology.
Only experiments allow psychologists to make causal inferences, not just descriptions or correlations.
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1. Basic Structure of an Experiment
Every psychological experiment is built around variables and control.
- Independent Variable (IV): The variable manipulated by the researcher
- Dependent Variable (DV): The variable measured as outcome
- Experimental Group: Receives the manipulation
- Control Group: Does not receive the manipulation
- Extraneous Variables: Other factors that must be controlled
Studying the effect of sleep deprivation (IV) on memory performance (DV).
graph TD IV[Independent Variable] --> DV[Dependent Variable] IV --> EXP[Experimental Group] CTRL[Control Group] --> DV EXTRA[Extraneous Variables] -.-> CTRL EXTRA -.-> EXP
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2. Types of Experiments in Psychology
| Type | Description | Illustrative Example |
|---|---|---|
| Laboratory Experiment | Conducted in controlled artificial setting | Memory experiments using word lists |
| Field Experiment | Conducted in natural setting with manipulation | Studying helping behaviour in real-life situations |
| Natural Experiment | IV occurs naturally, researcher observes effect | Studying trauma after natural disasters |
graph TD EXP[Experiments] --> LAB[Laboratory] EXP --> FIELD[Field] EXP --> NAT[Natural]
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3. Famous Experiments in Psychology
- Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning — Established learning through association.
- Skinner’s Operant Conditioning — Demonstrated learning through reinforcement.
- Milgram’s Obedience Experiment — Showed the power of authority over behaviour.
- Asch’s Conformity Experiments — Revealed social pressure effects on judgment.
These experiments shaped modern psychology by establishing learning, social influence, and authority as experimentally verifiable phenomena.
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4. Advantages of Experimental Method
- Establishes cause–effect relationships
- High internal validity
- Variables can be precisely controlled
- Results are replicable
5. Limitations of Experimental Method
- Artificial settings may reduce ecological validity
- Ethical constraints limit scope of manipulation
- Not suitable for all psychological phenomena
- Demand characteristics may affect behaviour
Experiments must follow strict ethical guidelines — informed consent, right to withdraw, and protection from harm.
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6. Explanatory Diagram: Experimental Research Process
graph TD PROB[Research Problem] --> HYP[Hypothesis] HYP --> DES[Experimental Design] DES --> MAN[Manipulation of IV] MAN --> MEA[Measurement of DV] MEA --> ANAL[Data Analysis] ANAL --> CONC[Conclusion & Causation]
When the objective is to test hypotheses and establish causality under controlled conditions.
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