Sociological Theories of Social Change (Advanced & Contemporary): Part 2
This part covers: Cyclical/Civilisational (Sorokin, Toynbee), Modernisation & Diffusion (Lerner, Rostow, Inkeles–Smith, Ogburn, Rogers), a note on Dependency & World-Systems (detailed separately), Late-modern/Post- perspectives (Beck, Giddens, Bauman, Castells, Harvey, Bourdieu, Foucault, Touraine, Melucci), Feminist & Intersectional (Hartmann, Crenshaw), and Indian anchors (Srinivas, Y. Singh, Béteille, reforms & movements).
1) Cyclical / Civilisational Theories
1.1 Pitirim Sorokin — Cultural Mentality Cycles
- Ideational culture: transcendental truth, ascetic values; low material emphasis.
- Idealistic (mixed): synthesis of spiritual + empirical.
- Sensate culture: empirical, hedonistic, materialist orientation; art/science flourish but moral cohesion can wane.
- Mechanism of change: saturation → cultural fatigue → swing to the opposite pole; long civilisational waves.
Flow — Sorokin’s Cultural Oscillation
Ideational
Idealistic
Sensate
1.2 Arnold Toynbee — Challenge–Response
- Societies face challenges (ecological, military, economic); creative minorities craft responses, which masses mimesis (imitate).
- Breakdown occurs when elites become dominant (not creative), losing legitimacy; universal states & churches arise in decline phases.
| Theory | Driver | Mechanism | Outcome | Use in Answers |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sorokin | Cultural mentality | Oscillation across ideational–sensate | Civilisational waves | Long-term value shifts |
| Toynbee | External/internal challenges | Creative response by minorities | Growth/decline cycles | Elites, legitimacy, adaptation |
2) Modernisation & Diffusion
2.1 Lerner, Rostow, Inkeles & Smith — Modernisation
- Lerner: media exposure → empathy/“psychic mobility” → urbanisation, participation.
- Rostow: five stages (traditional → preconditions → take-off → drive to maturity → high mass consumption); growth-centric path.
- Inkeles & Smith: “modern man” syndrome — openness to new ideas, time discipline, efficacy, universalism; education as key.
- Critiques: ethnocentrism, linearity, neglect of power/dependency, environment, and cultural plurality.
2.2 William F. Ogburn — Cultural Lag
- Technological change outpaces social institutions (law, morals), generating lag and strain until norms adjust.
2.3 Everett Rogers — Diffusion of Innovations
- Adopter categories: innovators → early adopters → early majority → late majority → laggards.
- Key variables: relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, observability; networks & opinion leaders.
Vertical Flow — From Tech Change to Social Adjustment
Invention
Diffusion
Rogers’ curve
Rogers’ curve
Cultural Lag
Ogburn
Ogburn
Institutional Adjustment
| Modernisation Lens | Core Claim | Strength | Critique | Complement |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lerner | Media → empathy → participation | Role of communication | Urban bias; agency overstated | Rogers diffusion, digital divides |
| Rostow | Universal growth stages | Clear policy roadmap | Teleology; ignores dependence | Dependency/World-system (separate post) |
| Inkeles–Smith | Modern personality traits | Micro–macro bridge | Culture essentialism | Bourdieu (habitus), education sociology |
| Ogburn | Technology outruns norms | Explains policy lag | Underplays power/inequality | Beck (risk), Giddens (reflexivity) |
| Rogers | Networked adoption process | Actionable levers | Ignores structure/class | Bourdieu (fields), Castells (networks) |
3) Dependency & World-Systems — Covered in a Separate Post (Module 10B)
To be covered fully in Module 10(B): Andre Gunder Frank (metropolis–satellite dependency), Cardoso & Faletto (dependent development), Samir Amin (unequal exchange), Immanuel Wallerstein (core–semi-periphery–periphery world-system).
4) Late-Modern / Post- / Post-Structural Perspectives
4.1 Risk, Reflexivity & Liquid Modernity
- Ulrich Beck (Risk Society): manufactured risks (ecological, technological); reflexive modernisation—institutions forced to re-examine themselves.
- Anthony Giddens (Reflexive Modernity): disembedding (time–space distanciation), re-embedding via expert systems; high-modernity is reflexive, not “post”.
- Zygmunt Bauman (Liquid Modernity): erosion of stable patterns; identities, jobs, ties become fluid—precarity and anxiety rise.
4.2 Networks, Space–Time & Capital
- Manuel Castells (Network Society): informational capitalism; flows, networks, and “space of flows” reshape power and work.
- David Harvey (Time–Space Compression): flexible accumulation; rapid turnover compresses distances and cycles; uneven development.
4.3 Culture, Power & Reproduction
- Pierre Bourdieu: habitus, field, capitals (economic, cultural, social, symbolic) reproduce inequality yet allow strategic change via capital conversion.
- Michel Foucault: power/knowledge; disciplinary and biopower reshape bodies, populations; change via micro-practices, discourse.
- Alain Touraine & Alberto Melucci: social movements as historic action and collective identity production—post-materialist, cultural conflicts.
| Thinker | What Drives Change? | Mechanism | Outcome/Concern | UPSC Hook |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Beck | Manufactured risks | Reflexive modernisation | Risk governance | Environment, technology |
| Giddens | Disembedding processes | Expert systems, reflexivity | Trust & ontological security | Globalisation debates |
| Bauman | Fluidity of institutions | Flexible, insecure ties | Precarity, anxiety | Work & identity |
| Castells | Digital networks | Space of flows | Network power/inequality | Platforms & data |
| Harvey | Capital’s turnover | Time–space compression | Uneven development | Urbanisation, finance |
| Bourdieu | Field dynamics | Capital conversion | Reproduction/change | Education, culture |
| Foucault | Power/knowledge | Discipline/biopower | Subject formation | Health, policing |
| Touraine/Melucci | Identity & meaning | Movement networks | New social conflicts | Rights, culture |
Horizontal Flow — Contemporary Change Logics
Risks
Beck
Beck
Reflexivity
Giddens
Giddens
Liquidity
Bauman
Bauman
Networks
Castells
Castells
Compression
Harvey
Harvey
5) Feminist & Intersectional Perspectives
- Heidi Hartmann: capitalism + patriarchy = “dual systems” shaping labour, family, and the state; change requires both class and gender transformations.
- Kimberlé Crenshaw: intersectionality — race/caste/gender/class interlock; policies must address overlapping disadvantages.
| Lens | Driver of Change | Mechanism | Policy/Answer Angle |
|---|---|---|---|
| Hartmann | Class + patriarchy | Institutions organise gendered work | Care, labour rights, representation |
| Crenshaw | Intersecting structures | Overlapping exclusions | Targeted inclusion; data disaggregation |
6) Indian Anchors — Endogenous Pathways of Change
- M. N. Srinivas: Sanskritisation, Westernisation; endogenous cultural mobility vs institutional/colonial influences.
- Yogendra Singh: Modernisation of Indian tradition — selective adaptation; synthesis of tradition and modernity.
- André Béteille: inequality, class–status interplay; how constitutionalism, markets, and democracy reshape hierarchies.
- Agents: state reforms (rights, reservations, welfare), markets (growth, migration), civil society (movements, NGOs), education & media, judiciary (PILs).
Vertical Flow — Indian Change Spine
Tradition
caste, kinship
caste, kinship
Selective Modernisation
Y. Singh
Y. Singh
Institutions
state, markets, courts
state, markets, courts
Movements
identity & rights
identity & rights
| Theme | Conceptual Lens | Illustration | UPSC Hook |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cultural mobility | Sanskritisation | Ritual status change | Limits without economic power |
| Hybrid change | Modernisation of tradition | Panchayats + quotas | Institutional syncretism |
| Inequality | Béteille (class–status) | Markets + reservations | Multiple hierarchies |
| Agents | State–Market–Civil Society | Welfare, migration, social audits | Multi-actor causality |
UPSC Answer Toolkit — Part 2
- Frame your lens first: cyclical (Sorokin/Toynbee), modernisation/diffusion (Lerner–Rostow–Rogers), late-modern/post- (Beck–Giddens–Bauman–Castells–Harvey), reproduction/change (Bourdieu/Foucault), feminist/intersectional (Hartmann/Crenshaw), Indian anchors (Srinivas/Y. Singh/Béteille).
- Two-layer write-up: (i) driver (values, technology, risk, networks, power), (ii) mechanism (diffusion, reflexivity, capital conversion, discourse, identity work).
- Contrast & combine: modernisation vs dependency (point to separate 10B), diffusion vs structure (Rogers × Bourdieu), risk vs capability (Beck × Sen if needed).
- Indianise: tradition–modernity synthesis; constitutional remedies; movements; education/media; urbanisation & migration.
- Visual hooks: Sorokin’s oscillation; Ogburn’s lag stack; Rogers adoption curve; Beck→Giddens→Bauman chain; Castells networks; Indian change spine.
Reminder: Dependency & World-Systems (Frank, Cardoso–Faletto, Amin, Wallerstein) will be covered in detail in **Module 10(B)** as a separate post.
Thinkers in this part: Sorokin, Toynbee, Lerner, Rostow, Inkeles & Smith, Ogburn, Rogers, Beck, Giddens, Bauman, Castells, Harvey, Bourdieu, Foucault, Touraine, Melucci, Hartmann, Crenshaw, plus Indian anchors: M. N. Srinivas, Yogendra Singh, André Béteille.
