Émile Durkheim’s Theories: A Comprehensive Summary for UPSC Sociology
Durkheim’s work is the foundational text for the functionalist perspective. He aimed to study society scientifically by treating **social facts** as things, defining sociology as the science of institutions, and seeking to explain social order and cohesion across different societal types.
1. The Method: Social Facts
Durkheim’s defining contribution to sociology is the concept of the social fact, which he argues should be the subject matter of the discipline.
| Concept | Definition | Importance |
|---|---|---|
| **Social Fact** | Ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that are **external** to the individual and are endowed with a power of **coercion** (constraint), by which they control him. | Establishes sociology as an **independent, scientific discipline** by giving it a distinct, empirical subject matter. |
| **Externality** | Social norms, laws, and customs exist outside the individual consciousness and pre-date the individual. | Proves that social reality is more than the sum of individual actions. |
| **Coercion** | Social facts constrain individual behavior and can be enforced through formal (law, punishment) or informal (shame, ridicule) sanctions. | Explains the stability and power of society over the individual. |
| **Normal vs. Pathological** | A social fact (like crime) is **normal** if it is found in all societies of a given type at a certain stage of development; it is **pathological** if it is an abnormality outside the typical range. | Provides a scientific criterion for evaluating social health, arguing that deviance is functionally necessary. |
| **Currents of Opinion** | Collective states of mind (e.g., waves of enthusiasm, indignation) that are temporary but demonstrate the coercive power of the group on the individual. | Illustrates how a collective consciousness shapes individual feelings and actions. |
2. Theory of Social Solidarity (Division of Labour)
In *The Division of Labour in Society* (1893), Durkheim examined how societies maintain **social solidarity** (cohesion) in the face of increasing complexity and specialization. He identified two primary types of solidarity, each corresponding to a different social structure.
Table 1: Mechanical vs. Organic Solidarity
| Feature | Mechanical Solidarity (Traditional Society) | Organic Solidarity (Modern Society) |
|---|---|---|
| **Basis of Cohesion** | **Similarity** (Homogeneity). Individuals are all alike in values and work. | **Difference** (Interdependence). Individuals are highly specialized and reliant on others. |
| **Type of Consciousness** | **Collective Consciousness** is strong, rigid, and covers most aspects of life. | **Collective Consciousness** is weaker, more abstract, and allows for individual freedom. |
| **Nature of Law** | **Repressive Law** (Penal Law). Severe punishment for offenses against the collective moral code. | **Restitutive Law** (Contract/Civil Law). Focuses on restoration and compensation for harm to the individual. |
| **Type of Economy** | Low Division of Labour (simple, self-sufficient, agricultural). | High Division of Labour (complex, specialized, industrial). |
| **Example** | Simple tribes, village communities. | Industrial nation-states, modern cities. |
Flowchart: Path to Modern Cohesion
3. Theory of Suicide
Durkheim’s *Suicide* (1897) is a landmark study that demonstrates the power of social facts by showing that a profoundly personal act is regulated by social forces. He defined suicide as “all cases of death resulting directly or indirectly from a positive or negative act of the victim himself, which he knows will produce this result.” He argued that suicide rates are determined by the degree of **Social Integration** and **Social Regulation**.
Table 2: The Four Types of Suicide
| Dimension | Type of Suicide | Cause (Social Fact) | Key Characteristic |
|---|---|---|---|
| **Integration** (Too Low) | **Egoistic** | **Insufficient Integration** of the individual into social groups. | Excessive individualism and detachment. (e.g., Protestantism, unmarried people, war-time retreat). |
| **Integration** (Too High) | **Altruistic** | **Excessive Integration** into the social group; individual places group goals above self. | Suicide is a moral duty. (e.g., Sati, military suicide for honor, elderly Eskimos). |
| **Regulation** (Too Low) | **Anomic** | **Insufficient Regulation** (lack of moral guidance) due to rapid social change or crisis (e.g., economic boom or crash). | Society’s norms fail to limit individual desires, leading to disillusionment. |
| **Regulation** (Too High) | **Fatalistic** | **Excessive Regulation** (oppressive discipline and control) over the individual’s life. | Loss of hope and future due to relentless oppression. (e.g., slaves, prisoners). |
**Note:** Durkheim focused primarily on **Egoistic** and **Anomic** suicide, as they were most relevant to the problems of modern industrial society.
4. Theory of Religion and Collective Effervescence
In *The Elementary Forms of Religious Life* (1912), Durkheim sought the functional origins of religion and morality.
| Concept | Definition | Importance to Society |
|---|---|---|
| **The Sacred** | Things set apart and forbidden (e.g., gods, rituals, totems). They invoke feelings of awe and respect. | Represents **Society** itself; society worships its own power through these symbols. |
| **The Profane** | Mundane, utilitarian things of everyday life. | The contrast between the sacred and profane creates a necessary social boundary. |
| **Totemism** | The most basic and pure form of religion, where a group (clan) worships an emblem (Totem) of an animal or plant. | The Totem is the symbol of the clan, proving that what is being worshipped is the **Social Group**. |
| **Collective Effervescence** | Moments when a group gathers and experiences intense, shared emotion and enthusiasm, temporarily lifting individuals to a higher state. | These moments are the **origin of the idea of the Sacred** and the **renewal of the Collective Consciousness**. (e.g., festivals, political rallies). |
Conclusion:
Religion is a social cement. It is “the system of symbols and rituals in terms of which society achieves its sacramental unity.” It is the ultimate source of all morality, law, and even science.
